A Guide for the Study of Animals

Pictures, charts, lantern slides, and books showing cow, sheep, hog, goat, horse, etc. Diagram of skeleton.

Directions.

Since it is impossible to have living ungulates in the laboratory, this study should be supplemented by trips to a museum and to a zoölogical garden. Observe also such hoofed animals as may be common in your neighborhood. Use your camera and make "snapshots," showing characteristic attitudes of these animals.

Definitions.

Ungulates,

an order of mammals characterized by the possession of hoofs.

Ruminant,

a division of ungulates, which "chew the cud."

Perissodactyl,

a division of ungulates with an odd number of toes.

Artiodactyl,

a division of ungulates with an even number of toes.

Carnivorous,

flesh-eating.

Herbivorous,

plant-eating.

Omnivorous,

eating both plant and animal food.

Observations in the laboratory.

Note.—Answer the following questions for one or more of the following: The cow, sheep, goat, hog, and horse. If desired, the questions may be answered in the form of a table.

1. What is the relative length of the neck? What is its direction with reference to the body? Of what importance is this length and direction?
2. What is the length and appearance of the tail? What is its use?
3. What is the relative length of the legs? Locate the heel, knee, and elbow. (Reference should be made to a diagram of a skeleton.) When the leg is long, in which bone is this lengthening accomplished (compared with human skeleton)?
4. How many toes on each foot? Is the animal an artiodactyl or a perissodactyl? Is it plantigrade or digitigrade?
5. What is the relative size and position of the ears (external ear)?
6. What is the relative size and position of the eyes? nostrils?
7. Are horns of any kind present? If so, note the size, shape, and direction. Are they present in both sexes? If not, in which one? If in both, note any differences distinguishing the sexes.

Suggested drawings.

1. Head, side view.
2. Entire animal, side view.

Observations in the field or at home.

1. Note how the animal uses its lips, tongue, and teeth in feeding. Is it a ruminant?
2. In what order does the animal use its feet? Look up the definition of walk, run, gallop, canter, trot, lope, single foot, pace. Which of these forms of locomotion are optional with the animal?
3. Describe the process when the animal lies down and gets up.
4. Describe the covering of the animal, noting its length, fineness, etc. What variations in different regions of the body?
5. Is the animal alert or sluggish? Upon what senses does it most depend? What mental characteristics are most marked, e.g. curiosity, fear, suspicion.
6. Note any movements of the ear. What is gained by these movements?
7. What is the position of the eye? What is the shape and direction of the pupil? Reason?
8. What means has the animal for getting away from its enemies.

Observations based upon museum trip or natural history.

1. Identify as many ungulates as you can; for example, buffalo, musk ox, big-horn sheep, Rocky Mountain goat, chamois, antelope, giraffe, red deer, elk, moose, reindeer, wild boar, peccary, rhinoceros, zebra, hippopotamus.
2. Answer the following questions about each:—
   1. What is the family, scientific name?
   2. What is the size of the animal? the relative length of the hind and fore legs? the relative length of the neck?
   3. What is the nature of the covering of the animal?
   4. [**corrected: d was a]Are any horns developed? If present, what is their size, shape, direction, and appearance?
   5. What is the habitat of the animal? its distribution and social life?

Summary.

In a short thesis summarize the facts you have found out about ungulates, using the following outline:—

1. Why called ungulates? Variation in number of toes.
2. General fact about the food of ungulates. The two divisions.
3. The general adaptations for protection.
4. The social life of the ungulates.
5. The native ungulates of the United States.
6. Commercial uses and value.

Ungulates: Review and Library Exercise

1. Ungulates which have been domesticated.
2. Breeds of cattle—their distinguishing marks and valuable points.
3. Breeds of horses—their distinguishing marks and valuable points.
4. Breeds of sheep—their distinguishing marks and valuable points.
5. Breeds of hogs—their distinguishing marks and valuable points.
6. Angora goats.
7. The making of butter and cheese. Kinds of cheese. Substitutes for butter.
8. The packing industry. Ungulates useful as food.
9. The various methods of preserving meat.
10. Cattle ranches and "round-ups." Free cattle in winter.
11. Cattle raising in your state; in other countries.
12. Transportation of cattle. Stock cars, care and feeding.
13. Useful products derived from ungulates.
14. Tanning. Varieties and use of leather.
15. Diagrams showing chief cuts of meats.
16. Sheep husbandry. Shearing.
17. Ungulates as beasts of burden. Advantages and disadvantages.
18. Government inspection—quarantine.

Natural History.

1. Geographical distribution of ungulates. Habitat and range.
2. Native ungulates of North America.
3. How, when, and by whom cattle and horses were introduced into America.
4. The geological history of the horse.
5. The story of the buffalo.
6. Deer hunting.
7. Methods of protection from enemies among ungulates.
8. Breeding habits and care of young in case of ungulates.
9. Intelligence in the case of horses.
10. Strange and peculiar ungulates to be seen in museums and zoölogical gardens.

The Horse

By means of various crusades and raids, the modern horse was introduced into Europe from Asia, where it is clearly traced in history to the reign of King Solomon. Here, in Europe, because of local conditions and demands, it assumed differing type forms. The roadster type is closest to the Arabian in character. The draft or heavy type was bred in western Europe when heavy armor came into use for rider and horse, and the coach or carriage type was developed when armor was abandoned for gunpowder. Finally explorers and colonists brought the horse back to America, its original home.

The various types and varieties may be briefly described.

A. The draft type has short legs, short neck, large round body, and ranges in weight from 1400 pounds to 2000 pounds.

Varieties:—

1. Percheron: generally about 1700 pounds in weight, 16 hands (64 inches) high, gray or black, blocky body, steep rump, clean legs, and quick action.
2. Shire: generally about 1800 pounds in weight, 17 hands high, bay or brown, white marked feet and face, hairy legs and feet, and slow action.
3. Belgian: generally about 1800 pounds in weight, 16 hands high, chestnut or roan in color, compact body, short, steep rump, and small feet.

B. The coach or carriage type has legs and neck of medium length, a body full-chested but not blocky, and a weight varying from 1150 pounds to 1400 pounds.

Varieties:—

1. Hackney: generally of full, broad, powerful body, short legs and back, high action and high carriage of neck and head, bay or chestnut in color, 15 hands high, and 1400 pounds in weight.
2. Coach: generally lighter than the Hackney, with longer legs and long stride; height, 16 hands; weight, 1300 pounds.
3. Cleveland bay: averaging 16½ hands in height, 1350 pounds in weight, high, broad hips, strong action, and bay color.

C. The roadster type is long and lean of limb and body, and averages about 1100 pounds in weight.

Varieties:—

1. Thoroughbred: of small head, long neck, level back, of variable color, 14½–16½ hands high, about 1000 pounds in weight.
2. American saddle: an American production; not a distinct breed, but a roadster of high quality.
3. American trotter: a superior type of good speed. The off forefoot and the nigh hind foot act together, the nigh fore and the off hind feet together, giving a two-beat gait.
4. Pacer: similar to the trotter, but using both off feet and both nigh feet together, giving a swinging gait.

The horse is very similar to man in its physical and mental character, being subject to the same ailments and treatment and having the same impulses of affection, hatred, fear, jealousy, obedience, willfulness, memory, and perhaps reason. It is of all animals most careful in its eating and drinking; because its stomach is small, the food should not be bulky but concentrated, grain forming a goodly portion of the ration.

Perhaps the most important point in the structure of the horse is the form of the leg and foot. The shoulder should slope slightly backward and the pastern joint, immediately above the hoof, slightly backward. The hips, or "quarters," should slope downward somewhat, and the hock should be comparatively wide to afford ample leverage for the pulling muscles. The legs should be straight as pillars when seen from front or rear. The outer walls of the hoof support most of the weight though the frog should normally touch the ground. In nature the hoof wears away properly of itself, but the shod hoof needs regular trimming attention, while the frog must not be trimmed, for it is the soft growing part that nourishes the hoof. In this treatment the foot is comparable with the human finger and finger nail.

Observations.

If access to a living animal is impossible or inconvenient, the pupil may use reference book or pictures for most of these points. A measuring tape or ruler should be at hand, and the assistance of an experienced person is a valuable aid. If several horses are studied, they should be distinguished by name or number.

Record the color, condition, weight, and height of the horse at the shoulder. (Height is given in "hands," a hand being the breadth of the palm, or 4 inches.) Note the slope of the shoulder, of the back and the hips, the general form of the head and neck, and the facial expression. Find the chestnuts, warty growths on the inside of each leg. Examine the foot, finding the V-shaped frog in the center, surrounded by the horny hoof.

Find the pulse by passing the fingers downward from the upper curve of the neck, along the inside of the jaw; count the pulse. Notice the position and motion of the ears with their lining of hair, and the position of the eyes, the form of the pupil, and the probable range of vision. Watch the horse use its lips, and examine the mouth and teeth, finding the grinding teeth far back in the mouth, the incisors in front, and the space where the canines are missing.

The male may have canines in the upper jaw.

On the surfaces of the incisors are the depressions, or "cups," by means of which age is determined.

At six years the cups leave the lower center teeth; at seven the adjoining teeth; and at eight, the outer lower teeth. At nine years they leave the upper center incisors; at ten, the adjoining teeth; and at eleven, the outer teeth above. At the age of ten years a spot appears in the outer upper incisors, at fifteen years the groove has worn to the center of the tooth, and at twenty-one years the groove is worn to the bottom of the tooth.

Questions.

1. Describe the horse you studied as to its name or number, its color, markings, weight, and size. Of what type and breed is it a specimen?
2. Upon how much of the foot does the horse walk? How does this affect ease or speed of action? How does an athlete imitate this in sprinting?
3. How many toes has each foot? What advantage or disadvantage can you see in this unusual structure?
4. How is the hoof constructed to distribute the weight over a surface broader than the leg? How general is this among terrestrial animals?
5. What is the difference in the position of the chestnuts of the fore and hind legs?
6. Where in the foreleg is a springiness permitted by curvature? Where does the back leg accomplish the same thing?
7. How do you account for the elongating of the face?
8. Explain the uses of the lips, telling how they are fitted for their work.
9. Tell where the bit lies in the horse's mouth, and how the structure permits this.
10. Where are the ears situated? How does this peculiar position affect the range of hearing and general alertness? Of how much movement are they capable? Describe the lining of the ear, and state its use.
11. What is the rate of the pulse?
12. Measure the height at shoulder and at croup, length of body from withers to rump, of head, of neck; thickness of body from the shoulder to the chest and of distance of chest from ground. Point out any equalities or ratios you find.

Topics for investigation.

1. The meaning of the terms gee, haw, nigh, off, run, gallop, trot, pace, single foot, rack.
2. The location, cause, and effect of these troubles: heaves, blind staggers, knee sprung, shoe boil, quitter, ring bone, spavin, capped hock, flat foot, hoof bound, glanders, mange, sweeny, hide bound, and thrush.
3. The record time for a trotted and a paced mile.
4. The meaning of "one horse power." How much a horse can pull on good roads.
5. Record prices for valuable horses.
6. Current prices for horses; for ponies; for mules.
7. The origin and the use of the mule.
8. Balanced rations.
9. The number and care of the young, and their relative development at birth.
10. Other animals used as beasts of burden in peculiar conditions or localities.

Homology of the Vertebrate Skeleton

1. In which types of vertebrates are the joints between the skull bones bound with cartilage? How does the joining change in later types?
2. What dissimilarities occur in the series as regards closure or boxing in of the eye orbits, nostrils, and skull bones? How would these changes in joining and closure affect strength, rigidity, and protection?
3. What evidence is there that such improvement has affected brain capacity and intelligence?
4. State how the attachment of the skull to the vertebral column changes as the animal man assumes an erect position.
5. Are the vertebræ of these types alike in structure? What is the general form of an horizontally placed vertebra, as in the horse or a reptile, and of a vertically placed one, as in man? If you see any differences, account for them.
6. Wherever possible, find the vertebræ of the neck (cervical), and note the number of them in each case.
7. How is flexibility of the column accomplished in certain types or in certain places of one type? How is rigidity gained? State instances in each answer.
8. Examining the interior of the turtle's "shell," find out and explain how the vertebræ have been modified to form the upper "shell." How has the under portion (plastron) been formed?
9. In round numbers, which skeleton has the greatest number of vertebræ and which the least?
10. Which skeleton has the greatest number of ribs, and which has the least?
11. In a summarizing statement explain any variations you find in the pectoral and pelvic girdle for strength (rigidity); flexibility. This answer may be written as a table, naming the bones, opposite each stating its condition, and then what it affords or is adapted to.
12. What is accomplished by having two bones in the shank of the leg? In what types or forms is there but one, and which one is it?
13. Can you assign any advantages in power, agility, length of leg, or position of leg and foot accruing from a long ankle? (See horse, frog, et al.)
14. Enumerate the types or forms, and opposite each state the number of fingers and toes.
15. Make a table, heading one column "Form or type"; another, "Habitat"; and a third, "Habit." Judging from the structure which you see or from your previous knowledge or experience, fill in the table, stating whether the type is aquatic, terrestrial, or aërial; whether it burrows, walks, runs, or climbs, etc.
16. From your statements in 15, explain how the peculiar mode of life affects the structure of these types.

CHAPTER VII
ADAPTATIONS FOR THE PRESERVATION OF THE SPECIES

1. The Simple or Asexual Method of Reproduction

Spore,

a cell capable of developing into a new organism.

Asexual reproduction,

reproduction by division of the cell or body.

Sexual reproduction,

reproduction by means of the conjugation of two reproductive cells known as the egg and sperm cells.

Fertilization,

the fusion of the male or sperm cell with the egg or female cell.

Ovary,

an organ producing eggs.

Spermary,

an organ producing sperm cells.

Cross fertilization,

fertilization in which the sperm and egg cells are produced by different individuals.

Diœcious,

the different kinds of reproductive organs found in different individuals.

Monœcious,

the different kinds of reproductive organs found in the same individual.

Directions.

Note.—Refer to your notes, if the animals mentioned in these exercises have been already studied. This exercise may be largely review.

Study the methods of reproduction in the specimens or diagrams before you. Determine first, in what respects the methods of reproduction are similar in all; second, in what respects there is a variation.

Questions.

1. What has an amœba gained by dividing? What powers has each new cell that the original amœba had lost? What would have been the fate of the amœba if it had not divided into new cells?
2. What various forms of cell division did you find?
3. What is the simplest method of reproduction?

2. The Complex or Sexual Method of Reproduction

1. How is an egg cell produced in hydra? In general how do the reproductive cells of sponges and hydra originate?
2. What is gained by limiting the process of reproduction to special cells?
3. What is the difference between the appearance of the nucleus of the fertilized and the unfertilized egg?
4. What is the advantage of cross fertilization? How accomplished in Hydra? What reason can you suggest for the spermary's position?
5. Describe the conjugation of a paramecium.
6. Describe the process of maturation and fertilization in a starfish egg.

Suggested drawings.

1. Diving Amœba or Paramecium.
2. Budding Hydra.
3. Hydra showing gonads.
4. Starfish egg—fertilized and unfertilized.

Summary of important points in the study of methods of reproduction:—

1. What are the two principal methods of reproduction? How do they differ?
2. Why is reproduction necessary?

B. Development

1. The Hen's Egg

Directions.

Boil an egg at least ten minutes in water deep enough to cover it. Note which side is uppermost and mark this part of the shell for reference. Remove the egg and pick away the shell from about half the egg, leaving the shell on that portion which was underneath when placed in water. With a sharp knife remove this half of the egg. Note the thickness of the shell. Test its composition (use hydrochloric acid). Find the membrane lining the shell and note that at one end it separates into two parts to inclose an air space.

1. What is this for? How does it change after an egg has been incubated for a week or more?

   Break an uncooked egg in a saucer. Note the germ spot. Note also the difference in the consistency of the "white" (albumen) and yellow portion ("yolk").

2. Why does the latter retain its shape?
3. Why do the white and yolk not mix unless shaken or beaten together?
4. Look for the chalaza.
5. What do you think is the use of this structure?

Weigh a fresh egg, place it in a dry atmosphere for a week, and weigh it again. Record result. Why may eggs be kept a long time perfectly fresh if coated with paraffin or if put in "water glass"?

Suggested drawings.

1. The egg as it appears in the saucer.
2. The egg after part of the shell has been removed.

2. Early Embryonic Development of an Egg

Definitions.

Cleavage stages,

two, four, eight, sixteen cells, etc., arising by repeated division, starting with the egg.

Blastula,

a hollow sphere, the wall of which is composed of a single layer of cells.

Gastrula,

a stage formed from the blastula by pushing in one side of the latter, so as to form a more or less cup-shape structure.

Observations.

1. Is there any considerable difference between the size of the egg and the size of the blastula and gastrula? Has development taken place by an increase of size or by an increase of complexity?
2. Contrast the blastula and gastrula as to number of cavities, number of cell layers, number of external openings.
3. Suggest protozoans that resemble the egg and blastula respectively. What invertebrates resemble the gastrula in body plan?

Suggested drawings.

1. Some of the cleavage stages.
2. A blastula.
3. A gastrula.

3. Postembryonic Development or Metamorphosis of a Mosquito

Definitions.

Postembryonic development,

the changes taking place in the development of an animal after birth or hatching.

Larva,

the active feeding stage. It is the first stage in postembryonic development, and follows the gastrula stage.

Pupa,

usually a resting or quiescent stage. It is the stage following the larva stage.

Observations.

1. Describe the appearance of the egg packet both as seen with the unaided eye and with a hand lens. Find the trapdoor.
2. What is the difference between the appearance of the larva and the pupa? How do their resting positions differ?
3. What does the larva do when disturbed? Describe any characteristic motions that you notice.
4. Contrast the pupa with the larva under the same conditions and note any differences.
5. Where do you think the external openings of the respiratory organs of the larva and those of the pupa are located? Give reasons for your answer.
6. Into what does the pupa change? Where must the pupa be at this time? Is it easier for the pupa to stay at the surface or at the bottom?
7. Examine an adult mosquito. State the kind of mouth parts, the number and appearance of the wings, the appearance of the antennæ. How does the male and female differ in this respect?

Suggested drawings.

1. A diagrammatic drawing representing the jar of water and showing the various positions assumed by the wrigglers.
2. Careful drawings of each stage.

4. Postembryonic Development or Metamorphosis of a Butterfly or Moth

1. State the color and appearance of the larva. If tubercles or spines are present, state where. Where are the spiracles? How do you distinguish the head, thorax, and abdomen in the case of the caterpillar?
2. What kind of mouth parts has the caterpillar?
3. How many prolegs has the caterpillar? Of what use are they?

   How does the number of prolegs differ from that of the caterpillar in the case of the grub? maggot? currant worm?

4. What is the advantage of the cocoon? What is its color, appearance, and material? Is it composed of a tough substance, or is it easily torn? Where are cocoons found out of doors? Where would you look for chrysalids? (Explain differences in locations.)

   Describe the cocoons of tussock moth, clothes moth, leaf roller.

5. What is the difference between a Cecropia cocoon which contains a living pupa and one that has been parasitized? What is the appearance of a parasitized caterpillar?
6. What rudimentary structures can you identify in the pupa? What kind of mouth parts has this stage?
7. Which of these stages is the active stage? Which stage is quiescent? What is really going on in the quiescent stage? In which stage does the insect grow? feed? If the insect were harmful, in which stage would it do the damage? How?
8. Describe what occurs when the pupa changes into the adult. What is the appearance of the wings in the beginning? What changes take place?
9. What kind of mouth parts has the adult? Describe.
10. Describe the antennæ.

    How do the antennæ of moths and butterflies vary?

11. What is the size and appearance of the eggs? Are they laid singly or in groups?

Suggested drawings.

1. A caterpillar, side view.
2. A pupa, ventral view.
3. An adult, dorsal view.
4. A few eggs.

5. Development of the Chick

Read carefully the directions for setting up and regulating the incubator. Remember that the temperature should average 103 degrees and should not vary more than two or three degrees above or below this. Candle the eggs from time to time and note difference in appearance, as development proceeds, especially as to transparency and size of the air space. An egg that is transparent after ten days is probably infertile and should be removed. Eggs which are developing properly will show from this time on a well developed air space, and will be quite opaque. The veins often give a spider-web appearance.

Twice each day remove the tray of eggs and allow to cool slightly. Once a day the eggs should be turned before the tray is returned to the incubator.

Questions.

1. Describe the appearance of the shell when the chick is about to come out. In about how many days after you put the eggs in the incubator did you first note this change? You should watch the incubator carefully from the eighteenth day on.
2. What proportion of the eggs hatched? What reasons can you suggest for the failure of some to hatch? Did any which were pipped fail to hatch? If so, break them open and see if you can discover the trouble.
3. How does the chick get out of the shell? How long does it take for it to get out after the shell is chipped? How does a chick look as soon as it has come out of the shell?
4. With what is a chick covered when it is first hatched? How long before feathers begin to develop?
5. How long before a chick needs food? How does it recognize it?

Summary.

1. What are the two kinds of development?
2. What are the stages in embryonic development?
3. What two general types of postembryonic development as determined by the amount of the food supplied in the egg?

C. Protection and Care of Young

Library Exercise

1. To what extent is care given to the eggs and young in the case of fish? Is the number of eggs large or small? Contrast this condition with that of the robin. What general conclusion is suggested?
2. Describe the egg-laying habits of five or more of the following: grasshopper, cecropia moth, tussock moth, leaf miner, case bearer, leaf roller, sphinx moth, gall insects, ichneumon flies, spiders, earthworm. How is the developing animal protected in each case? How is food assured?
3. Contrast the method of the honeybee and the solitary wasp as to the method of caring for and feeding the young.
4. Describe the nests of five or more of the following: spider, honeybee, bumblebee, paper wasp, mud dauber, digger wasp.
5. Describe the nests of the following: stickleback fish, sunfish.
6. Describe the nests of ten birds common to your neighborhood.
7. Describe the homes of the following: woodchuck, mole, squirrel, rabbit, muskrat, prairie dog, beaver, bear.
8. In case of birds which of the parent birds builds the nest and cares for the little birds?
9. How are the young cared for in the following cases: crayfish, cyclops, pipefish, Surinam toad?

Summary.

1. What general methods are there for protecting the young?
2. What various devices for assuring plenty of food for the developing animal?
3. What is the relation between the care given the young and the number of eggs produced?

D. Adaptations for the Preservation of the Species

Review Questions and Library Exercise

1. Show how the sexual method of reproduction tends to produce variations.
2. What is meant by the term heredity?
3. What are chromosomes? What do some zoölogists believe to be the relation between these chromosomes and heredity?
4. What are dominant and recessive characters? What is meant by "Mendel law of heredity"?
5. What is meant by the term parthenogenesis? What are some of its advantages and under what conditions does it take place? Name some animal in which parthenogenesis commonly takes place.
6. What is sex dimorphism? Give some examples.
7. What were the experiments of Professor Loeb and others in connection with artificially fertilized eggs?
8. How do eggs vary as to the kind of shell, amount of food, size, etc.? What is the effect of the amount of food upon the rate of development? On the stage of development at which the egg is hatched?
9. Contrast præcocial and altricial birds.
10. What is the effect of ground nesting and tree nesting upon the number of eggs and the care of the young?
11. Describe the metamorphosis of grasshopper, June beetle, honeybee, dragon-fly, cicada, may-fly, ant-lion, caddis fly.
12. Compare the development of the crayfish, crab, and lobster. What names are given to the larvæ? What is the significance in the fact that the lobster hatches in the "mysis stage"?
13. What are some of the peculiar names given to the larvæ in the case of echinoderms, worms, and mollusks? Why should these have received special names?
14. Name the three primitive germ layers. State the principal organs derived from each in the higher animals.
15. What is ontogeny? phylogeny? What is the meaning of the law "The ontogeny is an epitome of the phylogeny"?
16. Who was Weissman? What important contribution did he make to zoölogy?
17. With what phase of zoölogy is the name of T. H. Morgan associated?

CHAPTER VIII
POULTRY

The American Class includes fowls raised both for egg-production and for eating. It includes the following well-known breeds: the Plymouth Rocks, the Wyandottes, the Rhode Island Reds, and the less-known breeds of Javas, Dominiques, and Jersey Blues. These all lay good-sized brown eggs, are good winter layers, and stand confinement well. The standard weight varies from six and one half pounds to seven and one half pounds for the hen, and from eight and one half pounds to nine and one half pounds for the cock, the Plymouth Rocks being the heaviest of the breeds.

There are three principal varieties of Plymouth Rocks—the Barred Rocks, with grayish-white plumage regularly crossed with bars of blue-black, the White Rocks, and the Buff Rocks. All have single upright combs, which, with the wattles and the ear lobes, are bright red, a large bright eye, and yellow legs.

There are also three principal varieties of Wyandottes. The Silver-laced Wyandotte has a silvery-white plumage, with black markings in various parts of the body. The Golden Wyandotte is similar in its markings, but has yellow where the Silver-laced has white. The White Wyandotte is pure white. All have rose combs, red ear lobes, and yellow legs. They are on the average about a pound lighter than the Plymouth Rocks.

The Rhode Island Reds are a much more recent breed that has of late become very popular. They are of a reddish-brown color, about the weight of the Wyandotte, with yellow legs. There are both single combed and rose combed varieties.

The Asiatic Class includes those breeds raised chiefly for the table. The Brahmas, Cochins, and Langshans are the chief breeds. They are considerably heavier than other breeds, and are specially characterized by the feathers on the legs and feet. They all lay brown eggs, and are in many cases good layers.

The Brahmas include two principal varieties, the light and the dark. The general color is black and white, and they have yellow legs, red wattles, ear lobes, and comb, the latter being of the kind called a pea-comb, which is of small size in the cock.

There are four varieties of Cochins, the Buff being much more raised than the Partridge, the White, or the Black. The Partridge somewhat resembles a dark Brahma, but has red and brown plumage. Cochins have single combs, yellow legs, and a general fluffy character to the plumage, that of saddle and hackle meeting, thus giving a characteristic appearance to these fowls. The eggs are not quite so large as the other two breeds of this class.

The Langshans are smaller and more active than the two breeds just described. They have black legs, the feet are not so heavily feathered, and in general these fowls are much less awkward in appearance. There are two varieties, the White and the Black.

The Mediterranean Class includes those breeds raised chiefly because of their great egg-production. They are active birds, often troublesome because of their ability to fly over high enclosures, so that when kept in the city it is usually necessary to clip one wing. They are not so good winter layers as a rule, but are non-setters. They all lay white eggs. The chief breeds included are the Leghorns, the Minorcas, and the Black Spanish.

The Leghorns—the most popular of these breeds—include two chief varieties, the Brown and the White. The comb is most commonly single, falling to one side in the hen, the wattles long and pendulous, the ear lobes white, and the legs yellow.

The Minorcas are glossy black in color, with a large drooping comb in the hen, and long, thin, pendulous wattle. They lay a very large egg.

The Black Spanish resemble the Minorcas, but are distinguished by the white face and cheeks and the white on the inner edge of the wattles.

The English Class includes the Orpingtons and the Dorkings. The Dorkings are one of the oldest breeds of fowl, and sufficiently identified by the presence of a fifth toe. There are three varieties—the White, the Silver-gray, and the Colored. The White Dorking has a rose comb; the Silver-gray has a single comb and silvery-gray plumage with black markings, the hen having a salmon-colored breast; the Colored Dorkings have sometimes single and sometimes rose combs, the plumage of the cock being black and straw-colored and that of the hen being black and gray with the breast salmon marked with black.

The Orpingtons are short legged, with close plumage. They are of large size, the hens being from seven to eight pounds and the cocks from nine to ten pounds. There are three varieties—the black, the buff, and the white. The black, except for shape, might be mistaken for a Minorca, but has red ear lobes and black shanks. The Orpingtons have the reputation of maturing early, some strains being known to lay when four months old.

The Dutch Class includes the Red-caps, the Campines, and the various varieties of the Hamburgs—of which there are six: the Golden Spangled, the Silver Spangled, the Golden Penciled, the Silver Penciled, the Black and the White. They are all good layers and non-setters, "but lay a small egg, white in color. They are readily recognized by their peculiar rose comb with its long, spikelike projection in the back, their red face, white ear lobes, and bluish legs. The prevailing color of the golden varieties is a reddish bay marked with black and of the silver varieties white marked with black. The cock usually has more dark markings than the hen.

The Red-caps are large fowl with a red and black plumage. The comb is similar to the Hamburg's but larger, and the ear lobes are red.

The Campines resemble the Hamburgs, but have a single comb.

The French Class includes the Houdans, the Crevecœurs, and the La Fleche. The Houdans are mottled black and white with pinkish white legs, with a fifth toe like the Dorkings, and are easily recognized by their peculiar crest.

The other breeds of fowl, like the crested Polish, Bantams, and game fowl, have less interest for the poultry raiser, though often seen in exhibitions and poultry shows.

To sum up, we may group all these breeds according to their value into (1) the egg breeds, including the Leghorn, Minorca, Spanish, and Red-cap; (2) the meat breeds, including the Brahmas, Cochins, and Langshans; (3) the general purpose breeds, including the Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Rhode Island Reds, Dorkings, and Orpingtons; and (4) the fancy breeds, including the Polish, Bantams, Games, etc.

Definitions.

American Standard of Perfection, an illustrated volume published by the American Poultry Association, indicating the desirable points of each recognized breed of fowl.

Comb,

the fleshy outgrowth on the head.

Single comb,

a thin, upright comb.

Rose comb,

a flat comb with a rough or corrugated surface.

Pea comb,

resembling three single combs, united at the back.

Wattles,

the fleshy outgrowths from the underside of the throat.

Ear lobes,

the fleshy structure in the region of the ear.

Under-color,

the color noted when the coverts are raised.

Hackle,

the feathers on the neck.

Cape,

the feathers back of the hackle.

Saddle,

the feathers in the posterior region of the back.

Sickle,

the curved feathers of the tail in the cock.

Penciling,

small stripes or color markings on the feather.

Spangling,

large spots or splotches of color on the feather.

Shanks,

the exposed scaly portions of the legs, usually spoken of as the "legs."

Questions and observations.

1. Make a diagrammatic sketch of a fowl and locate the principal regions used in the description of the various breeds.
2. Observing the specimens or the pictures of the fowls at hand, note the size and kind of comb, the appearance of the wattles, the color of the eyes and ear lobes, the color in the various regions of the body, the color and any peculiarity of the legs and feet. If you wish, you may record your answers in tabular form.

Topics for investigation.

1. Look up and report upon the average number of eggs laid annually, and the number of eggs to the pound, in the case of the Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte, Rhode Island Red, Dorking, Brahma, Leghorn, and Minorca.
2. Explain the terms "non-setter" and "winter layer."
3. When do hens moult? How does this affect the laying? What schemes have poultry men to bring this moulting at the most favorable season?
4. What is a "balanced ration" as applied to fowls? What are some methods of feeding which tend to secure greater egg-production?
5. Explain some of the special features of such methods of housing and keeping chickens as the Philo System, Corning System, etc.
6. What precautions must be taken in raising chickens so as to prevent disease and attacks of enemies?
7. What does it cost per year to keep a dozen hens? How many can a person keep profitably on a city lot, if he is not to make a special business of chicken raising?
8. How do chickens solve the problem of the garbage can?
9. What are some of the objections made to keeping chickens in the city? Are these objections well founded, and if so how may they be met?
10. Find out what breeds of chickens are kept in your neighborhood, and note some of the reasons that are given for keeping these particular breeds.

GLOSSARY

Canals, channels through the body-walls of sponges.

Car' a pace, the shell which covers a portion or all of the cephalo-thorax in crustaceans.

Car' di nal, pertaining to a cardo or hinge.

Car niv' or ous, flesh-eating.

Car ot' id, a large artery which supplies the brain and head with blood.

Car' pal, a bone of the wrist.

Cat' er pil lar, the larva of a butterfly or moth.

Caud al, pertaining to the tail.

Cell, the smallest living unit.

Cell-wall, the lifeless membrane surrounding many cells, secreted by the protoplasm.

Central cavity, the cavity surrounded by the body-wall in the simpler many-celled animals, as in the sponges.

Ceph a lop' o da, the class to which the squid, octopus, nautilus, etc., belong.

Ceph' al o-tho' rax, the division of the body formed by the fused head and thorax in many arthropoda.

Cer' vi cal groove, the groove marking the place of union when head and thorax are merged into a cephalo-thorax.

Cha la' za, one of the spiral masses of albumen found at the two ends of a bird's egg.

Che' li peds, the large claws in many crustaceans.

Chor-date, animals with a notochord, present throughout life or disappearing.

Chro mat' o phore, color body.

Chrys' a lis, the pupa stage of a butterfly.

Cil' i um (pl. cilia), a minute vibrating hair on the surface of many cells.

Co coon', the envelope spun by certain larval insects in which they are inclosed during the pupa stage. A similar structure, as the egg-case of spiders, earthworms, etc.

Cœ' cum (se' kum), a blind pouch or bag; a sac open at one end.

Cœ len te ra' ta, rather simple, sac-like animals with nettle cells in the body walls.

Co le op' te ra, beetles.

Col' o ny, a group of animals of the same kind found in one locality, usually related to each other and often actually connected.

Com men' sal ism, an association of two animals, not mutually helpful, but without injury to either.

Com pound eye, an eye made up of many simple eyes or eye elements.

Com pressed', narrower from side to side than from dorsal to ventral surface.

Con ju ga' tion, a process occurring in some one-celled animals, preceding reproduction. In this process two animals unite temporarily and exchange nuclear substance, or in some forms the two cells fuse into one. After this exchange or fusion fission occurs, usually more rapidly than before.

Contracting or pulsating vacuoles, small, clear spots in a cell, filled with a watery fluid. In the living animal these alternately disappear and then reappear.

Co' nus ar te ri o' sus, a cone-shaped artery connected with the ventricle of the heart.

Cov' ert, a feather overlying the base of the large feathers of the wing or tail.

Cra' ni um, the skull, particularly that part of it inclosing the brain.

Crop, an enlarged portion of the esophagus.

Cross fertilization, a form of fertilization in which the male and female elements are produced by different individuals.

Crus ta' ce a, aquatic, gill-bearing arthropods, with two pairs of antennæ.

Cu' ti cle, the thin outer skin.

Cy' to plasm, the portion of the protoplasm of a cell which is outside of the nucleus, less dense than the nucleus and usually taking a lighter stain.

Den' ta ry, the terminal portion or bone of the lower jaw of vertebrates lower than mammals, containing all or most of the teeth.

Di a phragm, a muscular partition separating the abdomen and thorax, in mammals.

Dig' i ti grade, walking on the toes.

Di œ' cious, reproductive organs in different individuals.

Dip' te ra, insects with two wings, including flies, mosquitoes, etc.

Dis' tal end, the free end of any object which is attached by one end.

Dor' sal surface, the upper surface; the back.

Du' o de' num, the first portion of the small intestine.

Ec' to derm cells, cells covering the outside of sponges and some other simple animals.

Egg cell, the large, non-motile reproductive cell, with which a sperm cell fuses.

Em bry on' ic, development within the egg or in the body of the mother.

En' do derm cells, cells lining inner cavities in the many-celled animals. As a rule they have cilia or flagella.

E soph' a gus, the portion of the alimentary canal connecting the mouth (or the pharynx) with the stomach.

Eu sta' chi an (eu sta' kian) tube, a passage between the pharynx and the middle ear.

Ex ha' lent, flowing or moving away from the body.

Ex' o skel' e ton, an external skeleton.

Eye stalk, an appendage which bears an eye on its free end.

Fe' mur, (1) the thigh bone; (2) the third joint of an insect's leg.

Fer ti li za' tion, the fusion of male and female elements in reproduction.

Fi' bers, flexible threads; fibers of a horny material are found in the walls of many of the sponges.

Fib' u la, the outer of the two long bones of the lower leg.

Fin, a paddle-like structure for swimming.

Fin-rays, the framework of the fins of fishes.

Fis' sion, a method of reproduction used in all cells, by which a cell divides itself into two, usually through the center. See also Conjugation and Budding.

Fla gel' lum (pl. flagella), vibrating hairs larger than cilia and less numerous.

Food-balls, bits of food inside the cells of many one-celled animals, usually showing through the walls.

Food-vacuole, a small drop of water containing digestive material and a food-ball.

Fo ra' men, an opening or short passage.

Gall-bladder, a membranous sac for the storage of gall, or bile, at the lower edge of the liver (syn. "bile sac").

Gas ter op' o da, the class to which the snail belongs.

Ge' nus (pl. genera), a group of closely related species.

Germ-spot, the region in the bird's egg in which development first takes place.

Gill, an apparatus for breathing the air dissolved in water.

Gill-cham' ber, a pocket or cavity covered by a flap, in which the gills lie.

Gir' dle, the name applied to the smooth band often occurring near the anterior end of an earthworm.

Giz' zard, a portion of the alimentary canal with especially thickened muscular walls.

Glot' tis, the opening between the vocal cords, or the mouth of the windpipe.

Gre ga' ri ous, associations of animals with little division of labor; gathering in flocks, herds, etc.

Gullet, the inner end of the oral groove.

He mip' te ra, insects with a piercing organ for sucking their food, Bugs.

He pat' ic, pertaining to the liver.

Her biv' o rous, plant-eating.

Hock, the joint of the hind leg situated between the tibia and tarsus, corresponding to the ankle in man.

Hu' me rus, the long bone of the upper part of the arm or fore limb.

Hy men op' te ra, order of insects to which belong bees, ants, and wasps.

Ich neu' mon (ic nu' mon), an insect that deposits its eggs upon or in other insects, upon which its larvæ will feed.

In ha' lent, flowing or moving toward the body.

In ha' lent pores, the outer ends of the canals in the body-walls of sponges.

Ink-sac, a defensive structure found in the squid.

Ju' gu lar, pertaining to the throat.

La' bi um, lower lip.

La' brum, upper lip.

La mell' i branch i a' ta, the class to which the clam, oyster, etc., belong; bivalves, sometimes called pelecypoda.

Lar' va, (1) the early form of an animal when it is unlike the parent, or undergoes a metamorphosis; (2) the first stage of postembryonic development.

Lat' er al, (1) situated to one side of the median plane; (2) situated in the region of the hinge in a bivalve shell.

Lep i dop' te ra, butterflies and moths.

Lig' a ment, a strong band or cord binding two structures together.

Lin' gual, pertaining to the tongue.

Lip, any structure that bounds an orifice.

Mam' mal, vertebrates with a covering of hair or fur.

Man' di ble, a jaw or a jaw-like mouth-part.

Man' tle, folds of skin covering the body of a bivalve.

Masking, the covering of an animal by some object so as to hide its identity.

Max il' læ, the appendages just back of the mandibles in arthropods.

Max' il la ry, pertaining to or situated near the jaw.

Max il' li peds, the appendages back of the maxillæ in crustaceans.

Me' di an, pertaining to the middle.

Mes o gle' a, a non-cellular layer between ectoderm and endoderm cells.

Mes o tho' rax, the middle division of the thorax.

Met a car' pal, one of the bones between the wrist (carpus) and the fingers (phalanges).

Met a mor' pho sis, the series of changes which take place in the development of some animals after they are hatched.

Met a tar' sal, one of the bones of the metatarsus, between the ankle and the toes.

Met a tho' rax, the most posterior region of the thorax.

Mi cro nu' cle us, see Nucleolus.

Mimicry, a method of protection due to the resemblance of an unprotected to a well-protected animal.

Mol lus' ca, the branch of animals to which clams, snails, etc., belong.

Mo nœ' cious, reproductive organs in different regions of the same individual.

Mouth, the anterior opening into the digestive cavity.

Neph rid' i um (pl. neph rid' i a), a tubule functioning as a kidney in some of the worms.

Net' tle cells, the stinging cells found in the cœlenterates.

Noc tur' nal, pertaining to night.

Nu cle' o lus (pl. nucleoli), a very small, dense, dark-staining body, either within the nucleus or near it. In the latter case it is often called the paranucleus or micronucleus.

Nu' cle us (pl. nuclei), a dense bit of protoplasm usually near the center of a cell, often staining dark.

O cel' lus, a simple eye.

Om niv' o rous, eating or living upon food of all kinds.

O per' cu lum, a lid or cover.

O' ral, pertaining to the mouth.

Oral groove, a funnel-shaped groove in one side of some one-celled animals conducting food to the mouth.

Or' der, a term in classification used to designate a group of genera.

Or thop' ter a, the order to which locusts, grasshoppers, etc., belong.

Os' cu lum (pl. oscula), the large opening from the central cavity in sponges.

Os mo' sis, the process by which fluids of different densities become equally diffused when separated by an organic membrane or by a porous structure.

Os' ti a (sing. ostium), the inner ends of the canals in the body-walls of sponges.

O' va ry, the organ in which the egg cells are developed.

O vi pos' i tors, organs used to deposit eggs.

Pal' li al, a line connecting the two muscle scars in a bivalve shell.

Palp, (1) a jointed finger-like structure on the oral appendages of arthropods; (2) oral appendages found in mollusca.

Pan' cre as, one of the glands of the digestive system.

Par a nu' cle us, see Nucleolus.

Par' a si tism, an association of two animals, one living at the expense of the other.

Pec' to ral, (1) pertaining to the thorax or breast; (2) the anterior of the paired fins of fishes.

Pelvic, (1) pertaining to the pelvis; (2) the posterior paired fins of fishes.

Pen, a remnant of exoskeleton found in the squid.

Per i car' di um, a membranous bag surrounding the heart.

Per is so dac' tyl, ungulates with an odd number of toes.

Per' i to ne' um, a membrane that lines the body cavity.

Pha' lanx (pl. phalanges), one of the bones of the fingers or toes.

Phar' ynx, the region of the alimentary canal just back of the mouth cavity.

Pigment, a substance which gives color to an object.

Plan' ti grade, walking on the soles of the feet; flat-footed.

Pol' len bas ket, the flattened hairy tibia of the hind legs of honey bees, used for carrying pollen.

Pol' lin na tion, the transfer of pollen from the anther of a flower to the stigma.

Polyp, any radially symmetrical animal, but usually an individual in a connected colony.

Po rif' e ra, the sponges, distinguished by the canals which perforate the body wall.

Post em bry on' ic, development after birth or hatching.

Pos te' ri or, situated behind or toward the hinder part.

Pro bos' cis, a prolonged, flexible snout or a tubular structure, protruding from the head.

Pro' leg, an unsegmented appendage found in the larvæ of some insects.

Protective resemblance, a method of protection due to the resemblance of an animal to its background.

Pro tho' rax, the most anterior division of the thorax.

Pro' to plasm, the living material composing the cell; the physical basis of life.

Pro to zo' a (sing. protozoön), animals of one cell, existing alone or in loose colonies.

Prox' i mal end, the attached end of anything which has also a free end.

Pulsating vacuoles, see Contracting vacuoles.

Pu' pa, the stage in the development of an insect immediately preceding the adult.

Quill, one of the large, stiff, strong flight feathers or tail feathers of a bird; the hollow, basal part of a feather; a large, hollow, sharp spine.

Ra' di al sym' me try, having the organs or parts arranged symmetrically around a center.