A guide to the history of physical education

The types or systems of physical training found in Europe can all be reduced to three elemental forms, illustrated by the Turnverein or popular gymnastic society of Germany, the athletic sports and active games of the English public schools and universities, and the school gymnastics of Germany and Sweden. Corresponding to each of these, in a way, there have been international gatherings of three sorts in recent years, i.e., conventions and competitive meets of the European gymnastic federations, “games” and congresses held under the auspices of the International Olympic Committee, and a series of congresses organized with a view to better understanding of the principles and methods of physical education.

In 1881 Nicolas Jan Cupérus of Antwerp, president of the Fédération belge de Gymnastique (Belgische Turnbund), proposed an association of the various national organizations of popular gymnastic societies in Europe. Preliminary conventions were held at Liège on July 23d of that year and again on August 14-16, 1896, and arrangements were completed in Brussels, July 3-5, 1897. A permanent committee (Bureau) was appointed, with Cupérus as president. The articles of agreement provided for an exchange of publications and official documents, established rules governing invitations to national meets and conditions of participation in them, recognized only such national organizations as held themselves aloof from political and religious controversies, and stated the attitude of the union towards professionalism and in regard to the sort of prizes which should be awarded in competitions. The following federations subscribed to these articles: the Belgian, Czech, French, British (the National Physical Recreation Society, Amateur Gymnastic and Fencing Association, Irish Amateur Gymnastic Association, Scottish Amateur Gymnastic Association, and later the Welsh Amateur Gymnastic Association), Italian, Luxemburg (Grand Duchy), Hungarian, Netherlandish, Norwegian, and Swedish. The Danish federation was added later, but the German Turnerschaft and the Swiss Eidgenössischer Turnverein, together with smaller organizations in Austria, the Balkan States, Russia, Finland, and Portugal have never become affiliated. Seven statistical “Annuals”⁠[180] have been published under the editorship of Cupérus. Since 1897 conventions have been held at Antwerp (August 14, 1903), Berne (July 14, 1906), Prague (July 1, 1907), Paris (November 21, 1908), and Luxemburg (July 21, 1909); and there have been international meets for competition at Antwerp (1903), Bordeaux (1905), Prague (1907), Luxemburg (1909), Turin (1911), and Paris (1913).

The story of the modern Olympic Games, and the events which led up to them may best be told in the words of Dr. Albert Shaw⁠[181] and Professor William Milligan Sloane.⁠[182] Its central figure in the early years is Baron Pierre de Coubertin, scion of an old French family, born January 1, 1863, and educated in the schools of Paris. “It was in 1884, when only twenty-one years of age,” says Dr. Shaw, “that M. de Coubertin began his visits to England, with the prime object of acquainting himself intimately with the life of the great public schools,—Rugby, Eton, Harrow, and the others of that type. He had become strongly convinced that there was an element in English education that was sadly lacking in the French schools. Obviously and conspicuously, the English training in athletics, and the English devotion to outdoor sports and exercises, were almost totally unknown in the French lyceums and collegiate institutes. But Coubertin clearly perceived that something even more serious was concerned than the mere question of physical culture. He understood that in the rowing, football, and cricket of the English schools, and all their other games, contests, and field-day exercises, there was involved an element of moral discipline and strength that supplied in some sense a key to the secret of England’s power. Not merely a manliness expressed in muscular force and physical bearing was developed in the English arena of school sports or neighborhood contests and pastimes, but also a fine spirit of fair play, a hatred of meanness, lying, and all forms of deceit, and that fundamental kind of honor and integrity of character that causes Englishmen to be trusted and respected, even if not greatly beloved, by all races, in all lands. Furthermore, this love of hardy games and contests seemed to Coubertin the best sort of protection to the young men of our times from the temptation to unworthy indulgences that tend to undermine personal vigor and thereby to diminish the vitality of the nation.

“The drift in France among young men of education was towards softness and overrefinement, and the vices that are somewhat dangerously akin to certain phases of aesthetic development. The ideals of youth in England seemed, as compared with those of France, to make for the clear eye, the steady hand, the firm will,—in short, for self-control and the conservation of energy. It was, therefore, with no mere boyish fondness for the excitement of athletic contest, considered as a thing desirable in itself, that M. de Coubertin devoted himself to the development or the revival of a high type of manhood among French students.... He was ready at length in 1888, at the age of twenty-five, to publish his book L’Éducation en Angleterre (see p. 202), an account of school life in England, which, while valuable on any account, was of particular use in the advancement of the cause to which all his efforts were really devoted. The book attracted very favorable attention in France, and its success gave the young author and reformer prestige enough for the public launching of his practical movement, this taking the form of a ‘committee for the propagation of sports and physical exercises in education,’ with that eminent statesman, scholar, and educational authority, Jules Simon, as president of the committee.”

In 1889, in connection with the Paris Exposition, he organized a congress on physical education, and that autumn visited the United States, under commission from the National Department of Public Instruction, to study the organization, work, and life of American colleges. “Meanwhile,” continues Shaw, “all this work for the encouragement of the athletic spirit in the French institutions had begun to tell strongly; and in the season of 1891-1892 it was possible under M. de Coubertin’s leadership to organize what is now the well-known Union des Sociétés des Sports Athlétiques. This central body is a confederation of about two hundred French athletic clubs and societies, half of which are in the universities and colleges. With a view to keeping the French student’s interest from flagging, M. de Coubertin endeavored to make some plans for English and American competitions. Thus, in 1892, international football matches were begun between French and English teams, Lord Dufferin himself presiding over the first one held at Paris. M. de Coubertin also succeeded in securing the recognition of the French Union by the Henley Regatta Committee, and the admission of French rowing crews to the university contests on the Thames. Again, in that same season, he secured the visit to Paris of a team of American university athletes, as the result of the efforts of an American committee which he had organized and in which his friend Professor Sloane, then of Princeton University, was especially active....

“To crown the work of the year, M. de Coubertin, at the end of November (1892), gave a lecture in the amphitheater of the Sorbonne, in which he disclosed his plan for the reëstablishment of the Olympic games. The enlistment of American interest in this ambitious project for a modern quadrennial tournament of games and sports that should be open to amateurs—particularly those of the student class—from all nations, was much facilitated by M. de Coubertin’s second visit to the United States, which occurred in 1893.... Before leaving this country in the autumn of 1893 he had aroused a very general interest, especially in the college world, in his plan for the Olympic games. A little later, in the early weeks of 1894, he was actively at work in England holding conferences and forming his committee for the promotion of the idea of the quadrennial athletic tournament. In June of that year the subject was taken up by a great conference or congress, held at the Sorbonne in Paris (June 16-24), a dozen or more nations being represented. King George of the Hellenes sent his best wishes; and the eight-day conference, with its accompanying fêtes and sports in the Bois du Boulogne, was fairly successful, resulting in the formation of an international committee to carry the Olympic plan into effect.”

So far Dr. Shaw. Professor Sloane quotes from a preliminary circular of January 15, 1894, the final sentence of which reads as follows: “The reëstablishment of the Olympic Games on a basis and under conditions conformable to the needs of modern life would bring together every four years representatives of all nations, and it is permissible to suppose that these peaceful and courteous contests would supply the best of internationalisms.” “To this circular,” he says, “came a very irregular and scattering response. The German federations took no notice whatever, the gymnastic element in France was hostile, the British were lukewarm, the Belgians frankly and actively embattled. They had always held and still were of the opinion that gymnastics and sports were two inimical things and would always combat the latter as opposed to the former. Italy, Spain, Greece and above all Sweden sent regular delegates. Somehow or another seventy-nine persons representing something or another appeared at the congress. The many sessions were well attended, the accompanying festivities were dignified and inspiring. No one present can ever forget the great assemblage at the Sorbonne, the inspiring address of Courvel, the superb poem of Sicard, the wonderful execution of the hymn to Apollo, recently discovered at Delphi, nor the enthusiasm of the closing banquet. These were but a few of the notable events of the week. The climax of the proceedings was a unanimous vote for the reëstablishment of the Olympiads with the opening of the new century; but second thoughts were even more enthusiastic than first and it was finally determined to hold the first one at Athens in 1896.

“Greek royalty was already enrolled among the patrons of the scheme, Greek patriotism might be relied upon for material and effective support. Such at least was the opinion of M. Bikelas, the Greek member, the greatest modern Greek man of letters, exerting by the charm of his manner, the weight of his character and the gifts of his liberal hand, such an influence on the evolution of modern Greece as no other single man has been able to deploy. The event showed the correctness of his judgment and the weight of his personal influence. The president of the International Committee was received in Athens with enthusiasm, a wealthy Greek merchant of Alexandria, M. Averoff, caused the ancient Stadium to be restored and newly lined with Pentelic marble at his personal cost. A princely gift of a million drachmæ, other lavish personal contributions, and what amounted to a subsidy from the Greek Government completed the necessary fund. A very considerable legacy to the state from the brothers Zappas, designated for the furtherance of physical culture, was through the untiring persistency of M. de Coubertin, aided by two devoted Greek friends, M. Antonopoulo and Alexander Mercati, appropriated by government consent for Olympic purposes. The enterprise was therefore brilliantly launched.

“The succession of Olympic Games is well known: after Athens in 1896, Paris in 1900, St. Louis in 1904, London in 1908, Stockholm in 1912, Berlin (designated for 1916 and actually prepared but lapsed owing to war) and Antwerp in 1920. Each has been more amazing than its predecessor: in the number of nations represented, in the number and quality of competitors, in the greater perfection of preparation for each sport, in the number of sports clustered around the Olympic week of field and track events, in the social arrangements for better acquaintance among competitors and the ever-growing throng of visitors, and above all in the passionate interest of all peoples in all lands.... While track and field sports are the nucleus of the sport-plexus, they are not the whole of it. Nor is sport in the narrow sense the whole of it. All kinds of outdoor exercises and games have attached themselves to the Olympic week of track and field athletics—central and focal in modern as in ancient Olympiads—to such an extent that no national Olympic council can provide for all in the arrangements for the Olympiad to be held. Instead of an Olympic week we already have Olympic months and a very powerful movement was started some years ago to include winter sports of every kind, and expand into an Olympic year. It has become absolutely necessary, if there are to be Olympiads, that contraction should be substituted for expansion in the number of admitted sports or games represented by federations, national or international.

“Furthermore, the Olympic idea comprehends something, yes much, quite aside from contests of foremost experts in sport and play. For the Antwerp Olympiad arrangements included lectures, preliminary in the not too distant future to contests in belles lettres and the fine arts. Such competition is already in evidence as actually existent though still inchoate. In particular, however, and poignantly the Olympic idea as represented by its carriers proposes ‘all sports for all’ in the literal sense of the words. The Committee hopes that the day is not far distant when through its moral influence, orient as well as occident may be nationally organized for competition and that the benefits of ‘play for country’ as well as for self may by such organizations be alluringly offered to youths and adults of both sexes in every walk of life. To this end its plans are already laid, and already great portions of the globe hitherto inert athletically are girding themselves for Olympic organization. The field therefore of the Olympic idea is not merely sportive and social, it is educational and sociological as well. The intercourse of athletes and their friends makes for reciprocal goodwill and international peace; but in its largest aspect the idea makes for the general uplift and personal purity of untold millions....”

The first international congress for the promotion of physical education was held at Paris, June 8-15, 1889, in connection with the Universal Exposition. Its organizer and general secretary was Pierre de Coubertin, and the presiding officer was Jules Simon. At the same time came the fifteenth annual fête (Turnfest) of the Union des Sociétés de gymnastique de France, attended also by representatives from gymnastic societies in Belgium, Holland, the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, the three Scandinavian countries, Bohemia, and Switzerland. The Scandinavians did not take part in competition, but the delegations from each of the three countries went through their exercises separately in front of the tribune. In addition the group of Stockholm gymnasts, under the direction of Captain Viktor Balck of the Central Institute, appeared before the international congress on the 14th, at the Nouveau Cirque, rue St. Honore, in another exhibition of the Swedish system. A second Congrès international de l’Éducation physique met in Paris August 30-September 6, 1900, during the progress of the Exposition universelle of that year, with M. Georges Demeny (1850-1917) as general secretary.⁠[183]

Demeny, at first won over to the Swedish system by what he saw and heard at Paris in 1889 and during a mission to Sweden with Dr. Fernand Lagrange (1845-1909) in the autumn of 1890, afterwards withdrew from association with men like Dr. Philippe Tissié who advocated the Ling gymnastics for French schools, and sought to build up an eclectic (“French”) system of his own. Both parties were represented at the Congrès Olympique international de Sport et d’Éducation physique in Brussels June 9-14, 1905, and the Deuxième Congrès international de l’Éducation physique de la jeunesse at Liège, August 28-September 1 of that year,⁠[184] and there were preliminary skirmishes at the latter; but the first real battle was fought a few weeks later, at the Congrès international d’Expansion économique mondiale, in Mons (September 24-27). Five years later each group organized its own congress, the friends of the Swedish system a Congrès international de Gymnastique pédagogique, militaire, médicale et esthétique, which met in Brussels, August 4-6, 1910,⁠[185] and Demeny and his followers a (third) Congrès international d’Éducation physique in the same city a week later (August 10-13).⁠[186] A Danish committee representing friends of the Ling system organized another international congress, which held its sessions in Odense, Denmark, July 7-10, 1911.⁠[187] The last congress to be called together before the outbreak of the Great War met in Paris under the auspices of the Faculté de Médecine, March 17-20, 1913.⁠[188]