There are a few irregular mutations. Rarely a B after the adverbial particle en changes to F instead of P, e.g. en fras, greatly, from bras, sometimes an M after the same particle changes to F, sometimes an initial G becomes Wh, not C or K, for the fourth state, and in the MSS. there are other exceptional changes. The mutations are very irregularly written even in the best MSS. Sometimes a word is written in its first state when it ought to be in one of the other states, and sometimes mutations are made when they ought not to be, but probably the writers used them correctly enough in speaking, without perhaps clearly recognising the changes as they made them.
The rules for the use of the initial mutations will be given, as occasion occurs, throughout the book, and they will be tabulated at the end, where they will require less explanation than they would if they were given now. But this chapter should be thoroughly learnt and understood before going any further, as these changes are a very important part of Cornish grammar, and a habit should be formed of making them correctly.
CHAPTER III—THE ARTICLE
§ 1. The definite article the is an, for all numbers and genders. When the noun that follows is feminine and singular, or masculine and plural, its initial, if mutable, is in the second state. If it is masculine and singular, or feminine and plural, the initial is in the first state. [73]
When the article an is preceded by a preposition or conjunction, and sometimes by other words, ending in a vowel, the article loses its vowel and is written ’n. Thus:—
Dên, man, masc. sing.; an dên, the man. dhô’n dên, to the man.
Benen, woman, fem. sing.; an venen, the woman. dhô’n venen, to the woman.
Tassow, fathers, masc. plur.; an dassow, the fathers. dhô’n dassow, to the fathers.
Benenes, women, fem. plur.; an benenes, the women. dhô’n benenes, to the women.
The apostrophe is not written for the elided a of an in the MSS., but the preposition and article appear as one word, dhôn, dren, han, etc., for to the, by the, and the, etc. But it is better to write it, to avoid confusion, especially between a’n, from the, and the simple article, an. There are certain cases of contraction which have been accepted as single words, and in these the apostrophe is not used. Thus pandra (=pa an dra, “what (is) the thing?” i.e. “what is it?”) is used for the interrogative “what?” but is never written pa’n dra. There are occasional further compounds of pandra, e.g. pandrus (or pendrus)=pa an dra es, or pandryu=pa an dra yu, both meaning “what thing is?” pandrama=pa an dra a wrama, “what shall I do?” pandrellen=pa an dra a wrellen, “what should I do?”
As in the other Celtic languages, when a noun is followed by another noun in the possessive appositional genitive, the first noun has no definite article. Thus chŷ an dên, the house of the man, not an chŷ an dên. The same rule applies to a similar appositional genitive in Hebrew—a curious coincidence between two quite unconnected languages.
§ 2. The Indefinite Article.
As a rule a singular noun without any article expressed, except in the case of a noun followed by the appositional genitive, is considered to be in the indefinite state, and would be translated into English by a noun preceded by the indefinite article a or an. But partly as a corrupt following of English or French, and partly for emphasis, denoting a single one (like yr un in Welsh), the word a or an is sometimes represented by idn (earlier un), one. This is rare, especially in late Cornish. A similar indefinite article is common in Breton. Occasionally idn or un was used, as in Breton, with a verbal noun (or infinitive), to form what in English would be a present participle. Yn un scolchye, skulking, lit. in a skulking (Passion, 74, 2), yn un garme, shouting, crying out, lit. in a shouting (Passion, 168, 1), yn un fystyne, hastening, lit. in a hastening (Passion, 178, 1; 241, 4), but this construction is not found in late Cornish.
CHAPTER IV—THE NOUN
§ 1. The Formation of Nouns.
Nouns are either primitive or derived. Primitive nouns have no special terminations to distinguish them from other words. Derived nouns, chiefly abstract, are formed from adjectives, verbs, or other nouns. There are also verbal nouns which have the form of the infinitive of verbs.
1. Nouns are derived from adjectives and occasionally from nouns and verbs, by adding der or ter. Thus:—
dader, goodness, from da, good.
gwîrder, truth, from gwîr, true.
gwander, weakness, from gwan or gwadn, weak.
golowder, brightness, from golow, light.
tekter, beauty, from teg, beautiful.
whekter, sweetness, from wheg, sweet.
îthekter, horror, from îthek, horrible.
melder, sweetness (to taste), from mel, honey.
yender, coldness, from yên or yein, cold.
splander, brightness, splendour, from splan, bright.
tewlder, darkness, from tewal, dark.
tewder, thickness, from tew, thick.
tanowder, thinness, from tanow, thin.
powsder, heaviness, from pows, heavy.
scavder, lightness (of weight), from scav, light.
medhalder, softness, from medhal, soft.
glanithder, cleanness, from glanith, clean.
mǒgilder, warmth, from mǒgil, warm.
tǒmder, heat, from tǒm (or tǔbm), hot.
downder, depth, from down, deep.
sehter (or zehar), drought, from segh, dry.
ewhelder, height, from ewhel, high.
crevder, strength, from crev, strong.
Some adjectives ending in s revert to an original t in this formation. Thus:—
calletter, hardness, from cales, hard.
goscotter, shelter, from goskes, sheltering.
ponvotter, trouble, from ponvos, trouble.
It will be seen that this der or ter answers to the English termination ness, and may be added to almost any adjective to form the corresponding abstract noun.
2. Abstract nouns are derived from other nouns or adjectives by the addition of eth or neth.
gwiryoneth, truth, from gwiryon, truthful.
cosoleth, rest, peace, from cǒsel, quiet.
skîantoleth, wisdom, from skîantol, wise.
folneth, folly, from fol, a fool.
materneth, royalty, from matern, a king.
gokeneth, stupidity, from goky, a fool.
mescogneth, [76] madness, from mescok, a madman.
gowegneth, falsehood, from gowek, a liar.
roweth, bounty, from ro, a gift.
This termination answers more or less to the Latin itas or English ity.
3. Abstract nouns are derived from verbs by the addition of ans. Thus:—
crejyans, belief, from cresy (or crejy), to believe.
givyans, forgiveness, from gava, to forgive.
deskyans, learning, from desky, to learn.
disqwedhyans, discovery, from disqwedhas, to discover.
gordhyans (gorryans), glory, from gordhya (gorrya), to worship.
bownans, life, from bewa, to live.
marnans, death, from marwel or merwel, to die.
selwans, salvation, from selwel, to save.
tristyans, sadness, from trist, sad.
tibyans, thought, from tibya, to think.
This termination answers to the Latin antia or entia, and the English ance or ence. It is generally added to the root of the verb.
4. Nouns signifying agents or doers are derived from other nouns, adjectives, and verbs by the addition of or, er, ar, or yas (earlier iad or iat).
tŷor, a tiler, from tŷ, to cover.
pestrior, a wizard, from pestry, magic.
pescajor, a fisherman, from pescas, plur. of pesk, fish.
cosǒlyer, a counsellor, from cǒsǒl, counsel.
revader or revajor, a rower, from rev, an oar.
trǒccyer, a fuller.
lyuyar, a dyer, from, lyu, colour.
gwîadar, a weaver, from gwîa, to weave.
bǒnkyer, a cooper, from bǒnk, a blow.
ǒmdowlar, a wrestler, from ǒmdowla, to wrestle.
gǒnnador or gonajor, a sower, from gǒnas, to sow or plant.
mijar, a reaper, from mijy, to reap.
stênor, a tinner, from stên, tin.
selwyas, a saviour, from selwel, to save.
gwithyas (also gwithyor), a guardian, from gwithya, to keep.
kernyas, a trumpeter, from corn, a horn.
rennyas, a carver, from ranna, to divide.
sewyas, a tailor, from sewy, to sew.
pǔrkenyas, an enchanter, from the intensive prefix pur (lit. very) and cana, to sing.
helhyas, a pursuer, from helhya, to hunt.
scrivinyas, a writer, from scrîfa, to write.
offeryas, a priest, from offeren, mass.
hǒmbrǒnkyas, a leader, from hǒmbrǒnkya, to lead.
Many words in yas occur only in the Cottonian Vocabulary, and appear there as ending in iad or iat, but since all the Cottonian words in iad and iat which do appear in later MSS. are made in the latter to end in yas (or ias), and since it may be taken as an invariable rule that all words ending in t or d in Welsh or Breton, if they occur at all in Cornish, end in s, any Cottonian word in iat or iad may fairly be taken for purposes of modern Cornish to end in yas.
§ 2. The Gender of Nouns.
Nouns are of two genders, masculine and feminine. There is no neuter.
There is no rule whereby to tell the gender of a word, except in the case of animate objects, where the gender simply follows the sex.
There are only three grammatical cases in which gender matters at all.
1. When a noun or an adjective preceding a noun is preceded by the article an, the. If the noun or adjective is masculine singular or the noun feminine, or the adjective of either, plural, its initial remains in the first state. If the noun or adjective is feminine singular or the noun is masculine plural, [78] it is changed to the second state.
When a qualifying adjective follows a noun in the masculine or in the plural of either gender, the initial of the adjective remains in the first state. If the noun is feminine singular, the initial of the adjective changes to the second state.
3. The pronoun of the third person singular, used for a feminine noun, even when it signifies an inanimate object, is hŷ, she, not ev, he. Examples:—
tâs, a father; an tâs, the father.
tassow, fathers; an dassow, the fathers.
mergh, a daughter; an vergh, the daughter.
merhes, daughters; an merhes, the daughters.
tâs mas, a good father; mergh vas, a good daughter; an vergh vas, the good daughter.
tassow mas, good fathers; merhes mas, good daughters.
It will be evident, considering that a large number of nouns and adjectives do not begin with mutable letters, that the question of gender only applies to a limited number of nouns and adjectives, and therefore presents but little difficulty. Perhaps the best way to learn the genders of nouns with mutable initials is to get accustomed to their sound with the article prefixed.
The feminine equivalents of certain masculine nouns denoting animate objects are represented, as in other languages, in one of two ways, by the addition of a syllable or by different words.
1. By the addition of es. This is the regular form.
arledh, lord; arledhes, lady.
pestrior, a wizard; pestriores, a witch.
coweth, a companion, masc.; cowethes, a companion, fem.
mow, a boy; mowes, a girl.
sans, a saint; sanses, a female saint.
eneval, an animal, masc.; enevales, an animal, fem.
pehador or pehajor, a sinner, masc.; pehadores, a sinner, fem.
Except in the case of the other class of feminines, of which a list is given below, it may be taken as a general rule that the corresponding feminine of any noun denoting a masculine animate object is formed in this way.
2. By a different word. These are mostly those which denote relationships and familiar animals, and there are in some cases, as in English, further words to denote the young of both sexes, or the neuter.
dên, man; benen, woman; flogh, child.
gour, husband; gwrêg, wife.
mab, son; mergh, daughter.
ewiter, uncle; modreb, aunt.
tâs, father; mam, mother.
sîra, father; dama, mother.
sîra widn, [80] grandfather; dama widn, grandmother.
altrou, godfather; altrewan, godmother.
broder, brother; hoer, sister.
noy, nephew; noys, niece.
tarow, bull; bewgh, cow; ǒjion, ox; lewgh, calf; lǒdn, bullock; lejek, heifer.
hordh or hûr, ram; davas, sheep; mowls, wether; ôn, lamb.
margh, horse; caseg, mare; ebal, colt.
bŏk, he-goat; gavar, goat; min, kid.
baedh, boar; banew, sow; porhal, little pig; gwîs, old sow; ragomogh, hog; mohen, pig (plur. mogh); torgh, hog.
kŷ, dog; gêst, bitch.
gourgath, tom-cat; cath, cat.
carow, stag; ewik, hind; lewgh-ewik, fawn.
kǒtyorgh, roe buck; yorgh, roe doe.
keliok, cock; yar, hen; mabyer, chicken.
keliokwôdh, gander; gôdh, goose.
keliokôs, drake; hôs, duck.
§ 3. The Cases of Nouns.
All cases except the genitive and accusative are formed by prepositions, as in English. Of these prepositions some govern one state of the initial and some another, as will be seen in the chapter on prepositions, but when the article an, the, comes between the preposition and the noun, the initial is not changed by the preposition, but only, if at all (in the case of a feminine singular or masculine plural), by the article.
The genitive, by which must here be understood (in its old-fashioned sense) all those conditions under which a noun would in English be preceded by of, or followed by ’s, is formed in four ways, each of which has a different meaning.
1. The genitive of possession is the appositional genitive. This is formed by placing the noun that is in the genitive immediately after the noun which it qualifies, or, if the former has the definite article, or is qualified by a possessive pronoun or prefixed adjective, with only these intervening. No change of initial is made, [81] except the usual change of feminine singular or masculine plural nouns after an, or the changes caused by possessive pronouns, etc. The first of the two nouns must have no article. Thus:—
chŷ dên, the house of a man, or a man’s house.
chŷ an dên, the house of the man, or the man’s house.
chŷ benen, the house of a woman.
chŷ an venen, the house of the woman.
But not an chŷ an dên or an chŷ an venen.
If there is a succession of genitives, only the last noun can have an article. Thus:—
darras chŷ gour an venen, the door of the house of the husband of the woman.
2. The inflected genitive. This, which only exists, and that doubtfully, in the case of a few words, is formed by the modification of the root vowel. It is one of the common genitives of the Gaelic dialects, and as such is important, for it is not recognised in Welsh or Breton. Lhuyd gives five instances of it—margh, a horse, gen. mergh; mergh, a daughter, gen. myrgh; pen, a head, gen. pyn (used only in the quasi-preposition erbyn, against); whêl, work, gen. wheyl; crês, midst, gen. creys, but even these were very seldom used, and only probably in a few expressions. It would seem that the initial of the genitive word should in this case be in the second state. Thus:—
rên vergh, a horse’s mane.
3. The genitive of attribution, quality, origin, or quantity, denoted in English by the preposition of, but not expressible also by the possessive in ’s, though in many cases an adjective might be substituted for it, is expressed in Cornish by the preposition a, which puts the initial in the second state. Thus:—
a. Quality. Arledh a ’ras, Lord of grace; an Matern a wordhyans, the King of glory.
b. Origin. an Tâs an Nêv, the Father of Heaven (cf. Pater de cælis Deus, translated in the English Prayer-book, “O God, the Father of Heaven”); dên a Gernow, a man of Cornwall.
c. Quantity. Words denoting number, quantity, etc., generally adjectives or numerals, may be followed by this form of genitive. Thus:—
lên a ’ras, full of grace.
lower a ŷs, plenty of corn.
milyow a bensow, thousands of pounds.
4. The genitive of material is rather the use of a noun as an adjective. It differs from the appositional genitive in that the first noun may have the article before it, and the second does not, and that if the first noun be feminine singular, the initial of the second noun is in the second state. Thus:—
tolyer predn, a platter of wood.
tre bredn, a town of wood.
The accusative or objective is usually the same as the nominative, but it is to be remembered that there are a certain number of verbs which in English are followed directly by an accusative, but in Cornish require the intervention of a preposition.
The vocative is preceded by a, which signifies O, or by a personal pronoun. The initial after a and sometimes after the pronoun changes to the second state. Thus:—
mab, son; a vab, O son.
benen, woman; a venen, O woman; ti venen, thou woman.
why princis (Res. Dom., iii. 124), ye princes.
§ 4. The Plural of Nouns.
There are seven ways of forming the plural of nouns.
1. In ow or yow (pronounced o or yo). This is the commonest form, and would naturally be used for most new words. It answers to the Welsh au or iau, and the Breton ou or iou.
alwedh, a key, alwedhow.
dorn, a hand, dornow.
arv, a weapon, arvow.
bedh, a grave, bedhow.
ro, a gift, roow.
scovorn, an ear, scouornow.
dêdh, a day, dêdhyow.
Dew, God, dewow.
enev, soul, enevow.
cledh, ditch, cledhyow.
gwredh, root, gwredhyow.
menedh, mountain, menedhyow.
trev, tre, town, trevow.
tîr, land, tiryow,
Some which follow this form have peculiarities of their own.
a. Some double the last consonant, which has the effect of shortening the sound of the preceding vowel, and if the last consonant is an s, giving it the sound of s instead of z. Thus:—
Tâs, father, tassow.
fôs, wall, fossow.
lêr, floor, lerryow.
gêr, word, gerryow.
garget, garter, gargettow.
b. Some, which end in er or ar, drop the last vowel. Thus:—
levar, book, levrow.
dagar, tear, dagrow.
kenter, nail, kentrow.
c. Some insert g or k after a final l.
cŏsŏl, counsel, cŏsŏlgow.
tewal, dark, tewlgow or tewalgow.
del, leaves (collectively), delkyow (simple plural).
d. Some modify the root vowel. Thus:—
mâl, a joint, melyow.
2. In yon or on. This is also very common.
Cristiŏn, a Christian, Cristiŏnyon.
sgwer, esquire, sgwerryon.
caradow, friend, caradowyon.
scŏlŏr, scholar, scŏlŏryon.
deskibl, disciple, deskiblyon.
Breth, Briton, Brethon.
Sows, Englishman, Sowson.
prev, worm, prevyon.
When a word ends in k, and has this form of the plural (as most words ending in k have) the last letter becomes g.
bohajak, poor, bohajagyon.
marrek, knight, marregyon.
gowek, liar, gowegyon.
Some modify the root vowel.
clav, sick, clevyon.
mab, son, mebyon.
gwas, serving-man, gwesyon.
Yethow, Jew, Yethewon.
Kernow, Cornishman, Kernewon.
kîf, dear, kefyon.
gwîr, true, gweryon.
Those ending in er and ar, after a mute, contract the last syllable of the root.
lader, thief, laddron.
This termination is the only one used for the plural of adjectives. These are rarely inflected when in agreement with a plural noun, but when used as nouns they make their plural in this way. A large number of adjectives and also some nouns end in ek or ak. It is also the regular plural of words ending in or denoting an agent.
3. In y. This termination is more common in Cornish than in Welsh or Breton, though it is not uncommon in those languages also. It is often written i in the MSS.
esel, limb, esely.
mowes, girl, mowesy.
Gwidhel, Irishman, Gwidhely.
castell, castle, castelly.
legast, lobster, legesty (with a change of vowel).
porhel, pig, porhelly.
bîgel, shepherd, bîgely.
profes, prophet, profesy or profejy.
servis, servant, servisy or servijy.
gwithes, guardian, gwithesy. arledh, lord, arledhy.
trahes, cutter, trahesy (e.g. trahesy meyn, stone cutters).
This plural is mostly used for words ending in l and s, though not exclusively, and it occurs occasionally with other words. When a word ends in s preceded by a thin vowel, that letter is sometimes written j in the plural.
4. In es or edh. This is the equivalent of the Welsh edd, ydd, or oedd, and the Breton ed, though it is not necessarily used for the same words. Sometimes the vowel is modified. Thus:—
mergh, daughter, merhes. [86]
benen, woman, benenes.
flogh, child, flehes.
côl, coal, côles.
laha, law, lahes.
best, beast, bestes.
silly, eel, sillyes.
abostol, apostle, abesteledh.
broder, brother; brederedh, brethren.
el, angel, eledh.
gwrêg, wife, gwrêgedh.
A variant of this, written by Lhuyd az, yz, or oz, the vowel being obscure, is best represented in this spelling by as. It perhaps answers to the Welsh od, and iaid.
canker, crab, kencras.
pesk, fish, pescas.
bes, finger, besyas.
bat, staff, battas.
fow, den, fowas.
cap, cap, cappas.
5. By the modification of the vowel.
trôs, foot, treys.
mên, stone, meyn.
broder, brother; breder, brothers.
davas, sheep, deves, but also devejyow.
margh, horse, mergh.
tol, hole, tel.
ascorn, bone, escarn.
sans, saint, sêns, but also sansow.
dans, tooth, dêns.
yar, hen, yer.
mab, son, mêb, but also mebyon.
manek, glove, menik.
gavar, goat, gever.
6. By dropping the syllable en or an from the singular; or rather in this case the singular is formed from a plural, usually more or less collective, by adding the individualising suffix an or en. The words to which this applies are mostly such as are more commonly used in the plural, and the en becomes, as Norris calls it, “an individualising particle.” Thus:—
dêl, leaves, foliage; dêlen, a leaf.
gwrîhon, sparks; gwrîhonen, a spark.
gwêdh, trees; gwêdhen, a tree.
gwêl, rods, twigs; gwêlen, a rod, a twig.
lûhas, lightning; lûhesen, a flash of lightning.
scow, elder trees; scowen, an elder tree.
eithin, furze; eithinen, a furze bush.
loggas, mice; loggosan or loggojan, a mouse.
low, lice; lewen, a louse.
redan, fern; redanen, a single fern.
mor, berries; moren, a berry.
hern, pilchards; hernen, a pilchard.
mŭrryan, ants; murryanen, an ant.
on, ash trees; onnen, an ash.
enwedh, ash trees; enwedhen, an ash, from on, ash, gwêdh, trees.
glasten, oaks; glastenen, an oak.
gwern, alders; gwernen, an alder.
spern, thorns; spernen, a thorn.
bannol, broom (the plants collectively); bannolen, a broom (to sweep with).
And many others, chiefly names of plants and animals of a more or less gregarious nature. Some of these have other plurals, formed by adding one of the plural terminations to the collective plural. These would be used when the collective idea was not required. Thus:—
dêl, leaves (collective); delkyow or delgyow, leaves (not collectively).
Some singulars in en form their modern plurals from a lost collective plural, i.e. by dropping the en and adding one of the ordinary plural terminations. Thus:—
asen, a rib; asow, ribs.
gwillen, a sea-gull; gwilles, gulls.
7. In en, with or without alteration of vowel and contraction. Thus:—
kŷ, dog; kîen.
hanow, name; henwen (formerly hynwyn).
There is no general definite rule for the formation of plurals; they must be learnt by experience. Some words are found with two plurals, but this generally means a tendency in modern Cornish to consider yow or ow to be the normal termination, and to discard other endings in favour of it, just as the plural in s in English has superseded all but a very few other forms. Thus:—
escop (or epscop), bishop; escobyon or escobow.
Dew, God; dewon or dewow.
flogh, child; flehes or flehesow (flejow).
dêlen, leaf; dêlyow or delkyow.
tîr, land; terros or terryow.
enes, island; eneses or enesow.
§ 5. The so-called Dual.
Parts of the body which are double (ears, eyes, hands, arms, shoulders, knees, etc.), when mentioned in reference to the two ears, eyes, etc. of the same person, are expressed by a compound with the numeral deu, two, prefixed to the singular. The Welsh and Breton grammarians call this a dual. When eyes, ears, etc. are mentioned as belonging to more than one person, the plural is formed in one of the usual ways. Thus:—
lâv, hand; dual deulâv.
lagas, eye; dual deulagas; pl. lagasow.
scovorn, ear; dual deuscovorn; pl. scovornow.
glîn, knee; dual deulin.
elin, elbow; deulin.
bregh, arm; deuvregh.
bron, breast; deuvron.
scoudh, shoulder; deuscoudh.
For hands in general the plural is formed from dorn (which means more exactly fist), dornow; there is, as in Welsh, no regular plural of lâv. A variant of glîn is penglin (lit. knee-end), with a dual pedndewlin, cf. Welsh penelin, elbow.
* * * * *
Lastly, the plural of dên, man, is almost always tîs (earlier tus), folk, though Lhuyd gives dynion as well.
CHAPTER V—THE ADJECTIVE
Adjectives are primitive or derived. Primitive adjectives have no specially characteristic terminations. Derived adjectives are mostly formed by adding ek to a noun or verb, which may be said to answer to ous, ful, etc., in English. Thus:—
gallos, power; gallosek, powerful.
own, fear; ownek, fearful.
lowena, joy; lowenek, joyful.
marthes, wonder; marthesek, marvellous.
moreth, grief; morethek, mournful.
ponfos, trouble; ponfŏsek, troubled.
anfês, misfortune; anfêsek, unfortunate.
whans, desire; whansek, desirous.
colon, heart; colonnek, hearty.
The feminine of an adjective is formed in two ways.
1. By changing the initial to the second state, if it is mutable. This only happens when the adjective follows a feminine singular noun. When the adjective precedes the noun, singular or plural, and when it follows a masculine singular noun or a plural of either gender, the initial of the adjective remains in its first state, unless by reason of other circumstances than agreement, e.g. preceding prepositions, pronouns, etc., or when the article an precedes an adjective qualifying a noun of feminine singular. Unlike Breton, but like Welsh, an adjective qualifying and following a masculine plural does not change.
2. Rarely and irregularly, by the alteration of the root vowel as well as by the change of initial. This, however, though mentioned by Lhuyd and occasionally found in MSS., was practically obsolete long before his time.
The plural of adjectives is formed by the addition of yon or on. Rarely, chiefly in poetry, this plural is found in agreement with a plural noun, but usually qualifying adjectives are treated as indeclinable, but for the initial mutation, and the plural form is only used, as a general thing, when an adjective is used as a noun.
The normal position of the adjective is after the noun. Sometimes it precedes it, and in that case it changes the initial of the noun to the second state, unless the adjective is in the comparative or superlative degree, when the initial is unchanged. The adjectives that most commonly precede the noun are drôg, evil; hen, old; lên, full; hager, ugly; fals, false; cam, crooked. Mer, great, may come before or after.
The comparative degree is formed by adding ah and the superlative by adding a to the positive, but as in English they can also be formed by the use of moy, more, and moyha, most. There are, of course, the usual irregular comparisons. The comparative or superlative adjective usually precedes the noun which it qualifies, though for the sake of verse or on account of emphasis it may follow it, sometimes with the definite article intervening. Than after a comparative is es (older ys or ages) or vel.
Examples of the use of adjectives:—
Dên gallosek, a powerful man.
Benen deg, a fair woman.
Mergh dewon, or mergh dew, black horses.
Benenes teg, fair women.
An hen dhên, the old man. (The more usual expression is an den coth).
An hen venen, the old woman. (More usually an venen goth).
An lowenegyon, the joyful ones.
Brassah gallos, greater power.
gwîn a’n gwella / an gwella gwîn / gwîn gwella } the best wine.
whekkah es mel, sweeter than honey.
Bron Ewhella, the highest hill (now Brown Willy).
The irregular comparisons are:—
Da (or Mas), good; gwel, better; gwella, best.
Drôg, bad; gwêth, worse; gwêtha, worst; but generally lakkah, comparative of lak (loose, remiss, lax), is used to signify worse.
Mêr, great; moy, greater or more; moyha, greatest or most; but also bras, comp. brassah, super. brassa.
Bîan, little; leh, less; lŷha, least; but there is also a comp. behadnah, and super, behadna, from an earlier form, behan.
Ogas, near; nes, nearer; nessa, nearest.
CHAPTER VI—THE NUMERALS
Cardinal |
Ordinal |
1. idn, or ŏnen (older un, onan, onon). [94] |
1st. kensa. |
2. deu (older dyw, dew). |
2nd. nessa or secund. |
3. trŷ, fem. teir (older tyr). |
3rd. trûja (older tresse, trege). |
4. pajer (older, m. peswar, f. feder). |
4th. peswordha (older peswere, pyswere). |
5. pemp (older pymp). |
5th. pempes (older pympes). |
6. wheh (or whe). |
6th. whethes (older whefes). |
7. seyth. |
7th. seythes (older seythves). |
8. eyth. |
8th. eythes. |
9. now (pronounced as the English word now). |
9th. nowes. |
10. deg (older dek). |
10th. degves. |
11. idnak. |
11th. idn-dhegves. |
12. dawdhak(older dewthak). |
12th. dawdhegves. |
13. tôrdhak. |
13th. tôrdhegves. |
14. peswôrdhak. |
14th. peswôrdhegves. |
15. pempthak. |
15th. pempthegves. |
16. whedhak. |
16th. whedhegves. |
17. seydhak. |
17th. seydhegves. |
18. eydhak. |
18th. eydhegves. |
19. nownjak (ow as in now). |
19th. nownjakves. |
20th. igansves. |
|
21. ǒnen war igans. |
21st. kensa war igans. |
22. deu war igans, etc. |
22nd. nessa war igans, etc. |
30. deg war igans. |
30th. degves war igans. |
31. idnak war igans, etc. |
31st. idn-dhegves war igans, etc. |
40. deugans. |
40th. deugansves. |
50. deg war deugans (or hanter cans). |
50th. degves war deugans. |
60. trŷ igans. |
60th. try-igansves. |
70. deg war trŷ igans or trŷ igans ha deg. |
70th. degves war try-igans or tri igans ha degves. |
80. pajer igans. |
80th. pajer-igansves. |
90. deg war pajer igans or pajer igans ha deg. |
90th. degves war pajer-igansves or pajer igans ha degves. |
100. cans. |
100th. cansves. |
200. deu cans. |
200th. deu cansves. |
300. tryhans. |
300th. tryhansves. |
1000. mil. |
1000th. milves. |
1,000,000. milvil or milyon. |
millionth. milvilves. |
When compound numbers are used, the noun follows the first of them. Thus:—
trŷ igans bledhan ha deg, 70 years (threescore years and ten), or deg bledhan war trŷ igans.
Larger compounds are made somewhat as in English. Thus a.d. 1904 is Bledhan agan Arledh nownjak cans ha pajer.
The later lists of ordinal numbers usually have vas for the termination, but the practice of the older MSS., the analogy of Welsh and Breton, and the very definite sound of the last syllable of pempes and whethes in the traditional fragments collected by the present writer in 1875, all point to e as the correct vowel.
Nouns which follow numerals are put in the singular number, [96] unless they are preceded by the preposition a, of. Thus:—
wheh dên, six men, not wheh denyon or wheh tîs.
trŷ mab, three sons, not trŷ mebyon.
pajer paw, not pajer pawyow, four feet (a name still used in the English of Cornwall for a newt).
But sometimes, in a collective sense:—
mil a bensow, a thousand [of] pounds.
wheh a vebyon ha wheh a verhes, six sons and six daughters.
The numerals, cardinal or ordinal, unlike certain of them in Welsh and Breton, do not change the initials of the nouns which follow them.
It may be well to add here certain applications of the numerals.
Once, twice, three times, etc. are represented by the cardinal numbers followed by gweth, time (in the above sense), with its initial in the second state, idnweth, deuweth, trŷweth, etc. Sometimes plek, fold, is used, as milblek, a thousand-fold.
Proportional parts are: qwartan, a quarter, hanter, half, and for the rest the ordinal numeral followed by radn, part, e.g. trûja radn, the third part.
The divisions of time are: secund, a second; minnis, a minute; êr, an hour; dêdh, a day; seithan, a week; mîs, a month; bledhan, a year; cansvledhan, a century. “O’clock” is expressed by êr; trŷ êr, three o’clock. “Half-past three” is hanter êr woja trŷ=half-an-hour after three. Midday and midnight are hanter-dêdh and hanter-nos. Half-past twelve (noon) is hanter êr woja hanter-dêdh.
The names of coins are: pevar, a farthing; demma, or hanter-denar, a halfpenny; denar, a penny; whednar [=wheh denar], sixpence; sôls, a shilling; hanter-corŭn, half-a-crown; corŭn, a crown; pens, a pound.
Measurements of length are: inch; trôs, a foot; gwêlan, a yard; fadhom; mildir, a mile.
Weights are: ons, ounce; pens, pound; tŏn, ton.
CHAPTER VII—THE PRONOUNS
§ 1. The Personal Pronouns.
There are four forms of the Personal pronouns. These forms are used under various circumstances, but they are mostly reducible to a single letter with or without its vowel for each person, the variations depending upon (a) the state of that letter, and (b) whether the vowel is placed before or after it. The vowel is elided in some cases, and coalesces with another vowel in others.
1. As the subject of a verb and preceding it.
2. As the subject or object of a verb and following it. This is for some pronouns the same as the first form, for others the first form with its initial in the second state.
3. As the object of a verb, but placed between a particle ending in a vowel and the verb. This form is used also for possessive pronouns of the first and second persons singular when they are preceded by the conjunction ha, and, or by a preposition ending in a vowel, or by en, in.
4. In composition with a preposition, and for forming the persons of an inflected tense of a verb.
In the first and second the consonant is followed by a vowel. In the third and fourth the consonant ends the word.
1. The First Person Singular. English, I or me. Letter M (V).
mî. |
mî a vedn, I will. |
|
2nd form. |
vî. |
gwith vî, keep me. |
3rd form. |
’m. |
neb a’m gwrîg, he who made me. |
4th form. |
’m or ’v. |
genev, with me; dhem, to me; carav, I love. |
The compounds of pronoun and preposition are written as one word, without an apostrophe, as the form of the preposition also is often affected by the composition. A list of these will be found later on, as they present some irregularities.
2. The Second Person Singular. English, thou or thee. Letter T (D).
1st form. |
tî (pronounced nearly chee, and sometimes so written). |
tî a vedn, thou wilt. |
2nd form. |
dî (often written sy or gy in the older MSS., and pronounced jee, nearly). |
menjes dî, thou wouldst. |
3rd form. |
’th (often ’d in the older MSS.). This is followed by the second state of the initial, or in the case of d by the fourth. |
mî a’th bes, I pray thee, re’th tynerchys, hath greeted thee (Passion, 115, 2). |
4th form. |
’s. |
genes, with thee. |
3. The Third Person Singular, masculine. English, he or him. Letter V or N, or a vowel.
1st form. |
ev (with the v very lightly sounded, and often silent. The older form is ef). |
ev a vedn, he will. |
2nd form. |
ev or e. |
menja ev, he would. |
3rd form. This form is commonly used in the earlier MSS. It represents an accusative en or hen which still exists in Breton. In more recent Cornish, with the frequent use of the auxiliary form of the verb, where the pronominal object precedes the infinitive in its possessive form, this construction became unusual. |
’n. |
mî a’n pes, I pray him. |
|
In this form several words have an inserted dh between the preposition and the pronoun. Ragdho, for him, dhôdho, to him, not rago, dhôo. A similar euphonic dh occurs in the case of the third persons feminine and plural. |
’o. |
enno, in him, ganso, with him. |
4. Third Person Singular, feminine. English, she, her. Letter H, S, or a vowel.
1st form. |
hŷ. |
hŷ a vedn, she will. |
2nd form. |
hŷ. |
a medh hŷ, said she. |
3rd form. This form is rarely found in the later MSS. Either the possessive î or the form hŷ (the latter often put after the verb) was used, in the rare cases of this construction. |
’s. |
mî a’s henow, I name her. |
4th form. |
’î. |
gensî, with her; dhedhî, to her. |
5. First Person Plural. English, we, us. Letter N.
1st form. |
nŷ. |
nŷ a vedn, we will. |
2nd form. |
nŷ. |
na, blamyough nŷ, do not blame us. |
3rd form. This form, perhaps owing to its being the same as the 3rd form of the third person singular, is rare even in the older MSS. The possessive ’gan (for agan) is generally used instead of it, ev a ’gan doro. |
’n. |
ev a’n doro, he will bring us. |
4th form. |
’n, preceded by almost any vowel. |
ragon, for us; genen, with us; dhen, to us; warnan, on us. |
6. Second Person Singular. English, you. Letter, Wh, Gh, or S.
7. Third Person Plural. English, they, them.
1st form. This last is the regular form in the latest Cornish. In the earlier MSS. y only is used for they; later an gy or an dzhei (as Lhuyd writes it) became usual. It is only found in the MSS. of the end of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth century, and probably originated in a wrong division of words. The third person plural of most inflected tenses of verbs ends in ons, ans, ens. If the pronoun were added, this would take the form of ons ŷ, etc., as in carons ŷ (amant illi), they love, and the usual pronunciation of s would soon bring this combination to caronjy, which is easily divided into car onjy. The compound preposition form in later Cornish often ended in ans, followed or not followed by the 1st or 2nd form of the pronoun. Thus in Jordan’s Creation (1611) we find anodhans y (from them) for an older anodhe. This would give an additional reason for the confusion. |
ŷ, jŷ, an jŷ. |
ŷ a vedn, jŷ a vedn, or an jŷ a vedn, they will. |
2nd form. |
ŷ. |
medhons ŷ (often written medh an jy), said they. |
3rd form. |
’s. |
mî a’s agor, I will open them. |
4th form. |
’ns, e. |
dhodhans, to them; gensans or genjans, with them. |
The form in e is older (dhethe, ganse, etc.), but became obsolete by the middle of the seventeenth century. It will have been seen:—
1. That the first and second persons singular are the only ones which possess the four separate forms complete.
2. That the second form of all but these two persons is usually the same as the first form.
3. That the third form is not much used in later Cornish except for the same two persons.
It may also be noted that though the full and emphatic pronunciation of hŷ, nŷ, whŷ, and jŷ is that of the English words high, nigh, why, and the first syllable of jibe, when, as is often the case, there is no emphasis of any sort on them, the same thing happens to them as commonly happens in rapid speech in English to the word my, and the y ceases to have the sound of î English, but has the sound of a short (not obscure) e English. Thus in the common Cornish “Thank you,” mêr ’ras dhô whŷ, which is sounded as one word, merásdhawhy, the y has the short sound which the same letter usually has at the end of a word. But it might happen otherwise. Thus the following sentences are within the experience of most of us at the end of some simple commercial transaction:—
Customer (carelessly, having received the article and paid the money), “Thánk you.”
Shopkeeper (in a half-reproving tone), “Thank you, sir.”
In Cornish the customer would say “Merásdkawhy,” in the ordinary tone, but the shopkeeper might answer “Merasdha whý, sira,” and would sound the pronoun like the English word why, unless, being a good Cornish speaker, he preferred to say “Mêr ’ras dhô ’gas honan” (Thanks to yourself).
The same principle applies to hŷ, nŷ, and an jŷ, but less with the last, which is generally treated as a dissyllable with the accent on the last syllable.
§ 2. The Possessive Pronouns.
1. First Person Singular. English, my.
ow, governing the third state.
When the initial of the noun has no third state, ow governs the first state:—
ow thâs, my father; ow gwlas, my country.
After a preposition ending in a vowel, after en, in, changed to e, or after the conjunction ha, and, my is generally represented by ’m, which governs the first state:—
dhô’m tâs, to my father; ha’m tâs, and my father.
e’m corf, in my body.
Sometimes in these cases the preposition or conjunction is combined with ow. This is especially common in Jordan’s play of The Creation. The initial, if possible, is then in the third state:—
me haw mab, I and my son; thow thas, to my father.
2. Second Person Singular. English, thy.
dha (older form dhe, dhy), governing the second state:—
dha dâs, thy father.
After a preposition ending in a vowel, after en, or after ha, thy is represented by ’th, generally governing the second state, but sometimes, when the initial following it is d, the fourth.