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A history of commerce

Chapter 67: INDEX
By Clive Day
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About This Book

A comprehensive historical survey traces the development of trade from ancient exchange systems through medieval fairs and town, land, and sea commerce, into the age of exploration and industrialization. It examines the institutions, routes, and technologies that shaped markets, including credit, currency, shipping, and transport, and analyzes mercantile policies, national commercial developments, and commodity flows. Detailed regional studies consider developments in major European states and the United States, while later chapters treat the effects of mechanization, coal, railroads, and communications. The final section evaluates disruptions and adaptations in international trade caused by the world war and its immediate aftermath.

INDEX

  • Aegina, 19.
  • Africa, circumnavigation of, 10, 130;
  • commerce with England, 221;
  • with the United States, 491, 586, 651.
  • Agriculture, medieval, 35;
  • modern, 139;
  • recent, 280.
  • Agricultural implements, 569.
  • Alexander the Great, 10, 11, 21.
  • Alexandria, 22, 27.
  • Alum, 82.
  • Amber, 103.
  • America, discovery of, 133.
  • Spanish, 180-184.
  • Amsterdam, 159, 194.
  • Antioch, 22, 27.
  • Antwerp, 74, 109, 154, 434.
  • Archangel, 267, 456.
  • Arkwright, 214.
  • Asia, in Middle Ages, 128. See also China, India, Japan, Levant.
  • Assize of bread, 51.
  • Assyria, 11.
  • Athens, 19 ff.
  • Australia, commerce with England, 361.
  • Austria-Hungary, modern, 259;
  • recent, 436, 639 ff.;
  • and Prussia, 396.
  • Austria, Republic, 641.
  • Babylon, 11.
  • Bagdad, 84.
  • Balboa, 133.
  • Balkan Peninsula, 465.
  • Baltic trade, medieval, 102 ff.;
  • modern, 252;
  • recent, 350.
  • Baltimore, 489, 548, 585.
  • Banking, early, 120, 150;
  • recent, 339.
  • Barcelona, 99.
  • Belgium, 433. See also Flanders, Netherland.
  • Bessemer, 285.
  • Bill of exchange, 120.
  • Bismarck, 406.
  • Bodeck, John von, 142.
  • Bolsheviks in Russia, 644.
  • Bordeaux, 74.
  • Boston, 489, 490, 548, 585.
  • Brazil, 185.
  • Bremen, 257.
  • British Dyes, limited, 615.
  • British North America, 221.
  • British Trade Corporation, 616.
  • Bruges, 75, 97, 105, 109, 115.
  • Bulgaria, 465.
  • Bullionist policy, 167.
  • Cable, submarine, 313.
  • Cadiz, 14.
  • Cabral, 133.
  • Canada, commerce with United States, 549, 589, 651.
  • See also, England, colonists.
  • Canals, 211, 292 ff. See also United States, waterways.
  • Ship, 307.
  • Caprivi, 418.
  • Carthage, 14, 22, 27.
  • Cartwright, 214.
  • Cavour, 443.
  • “Central Europe,” 419.
  • Chamberlain, Joseph, 392, 394.
  • Champagne, Fairs of, 65 ff.
  • Charlemagne, 29, 57.
  • Charleston, 489, 548.
  • Chemical industry, 286.
  • China, commerce with England, 363;
  • with Russia, 268;
  • with United States, 491, 495, 550, 589.
  • Coal, 274 ff., 319.
  • and iron, 215, 275.
  • in England, 359, 386;
  • in United States, 542, 560.
  • Cobden, Richard, 372, 425.
  • Coeur, Jacques, 232.
  • Colbert, 242, 246.
  • Colonial policy, modern, 171;
  • recent, 354.
  • of England, 226, 395;
  • of France, 234, 236;
  • of Spain, 180, 183.
  • Colonies, see under name of mother country.
  • Columbus, 133.
  • Commenda, 116.
  • Commerce, ancient, 9-29;
  • early medieval, 36;
  • late medieval, 44;
  • modern, 128;
  • recent, 270;
  • and World War, 593.
  • general, 1.
  • obstacles to, 2.
  • political conditions, 4, 31, 123, 161.
  • qualities of contemporary, 329.
  • risks of, 3.
  • statistics, recent, 271, 273, 396.
  • Commercial organization, medieval, 115 ff.;
  • modern, 141 ff.;
  • recent, 392 ff.
  • Commercial policy, manorial, 35;
  • municipal, 50;
  • national, 126;
  • recent, 345 ff;
  • See also under name of country.
  • Companies, medieval, 115;
  • modern, 144;
  • in England, 202 ff.;
  • in France, 234;
  • joint stock, 146 ff;
  • regulated, 145.
  • Compass, mariners’, 73.
  • Constantinople, 29, 86, 87, 90, 92.
  • Continental system, 346 ff.
  • Copper in the United States, 575.
  • Corinth, 19, 22.
  • Corn, see grain, wheat.
  • Corn (maize), in United States, 471, 472, 570.
  • Corn laws, English, 371, 372.
  • Cort, Henry, 215.
  • Cotton, 82, 323.
  • in United States, 503, 531, 566, 572.
  • manufacture, in England, 214, 360;
  • in United States, 543.
  • Crimean War, 456.
  • Crises, commercial, modern, 158;
  • recent, 339 ff.
  • Crusades, 86 ff.
  • Cumberland road, 515.
  • Currency, in Middle Ages, 118.
  • and prices after 1500, 135.
  • in World War, 600.
  • Czecho-Slovakia, 640.
  • Damascus, 84.
  • Denmark, 438.
  • commerce with Germany in World War, 636.
  • Drugs in Levant trade, 80.
  • Dyestuffs, 81, 287.
  • East India Company, Dutch, 192, 196.
  • English, 204, 220.
  • Egypt, 9, 85, 612 note.
  • Embargo in United States, 507.
  • Engine, internal combustion, 277. See also steam.
  • England, medieval, 109 ff.;
  • modern, 199 ff.;
  • recent, 357 ff.;
  • in World War, 607 ff.
  • agriculture, modern, 210;
  • recent, 371;
  • in World War, 614.
  • balance of trade, 380.
  • colonial policy, modern, 226;
  • recent, 395.
  • colonies, modern, 220;
  • recent, 364.
  • commercial policy, modern, 224;
  • recent, 368 ff.;
  • about 1900, 393 ff.;
  • in World War, 618 ff.
  • exports, modern, 209;
  • recent, 358 ff.;
  • 1850, 378;
  • 1900, 386;
  • in World War, 611 ff.
  • imports, modern, 219 ff.;
  • recent, 361; 1850, 379; 1900, 386;
  • in World War, 609 ff.
  • internal trade, 210.
  • labor in World War, 617.
  • manufactures, modern, 210;
  • recent, 359 ff., 389;
  • in World War, 615.
  • mercantile organization, 390, 616.
  • political development, 199, 212, 372.
  • ports, modern, 202;
  • recent, 224;
  • 1850, 382.
  • shipping, medieval, 110;
  • modern, 222;
  • recent, 374;
  • 1850, 381;
  • in World War, 599.
  • statistics, 1700-1800, 205, 206;
  • 1801-1850, 358;
  • 1850-1913, 377;
  • 1913-1919, 607.
  • and the United States, 362, 383;
  • policy, 1789, 499.
  • Erie canal, 519, 557.
  • Evans, 295.
  • Exchange, produce, modern, 154 ff.;
  • recent, 337.
  • stock, 156.
  • Factors, 142.
  • Fairs, medieval, 163 ff.;
  • decline, 337.
  • Feudalism, 32, 56.
  • decline of, 123, 161.
  • Fish, in Baltic commerce, 103, 252.
  • in United States, 471, 476.
  • Fiume, 261, 640.
  • Flanders, 97, 109.
  • Flanders galleys, 97.
  • Florence, 98 ff., 265.
  • Fondaco dei Tedeschi, 95.
  • Foreign exchange, 603 ff., 651.
  • France, modern, 229 ff.;
  • in Napoleonic wars, 348;
  • recent, 422 ff.;
  • in World War, 622 ff.
  • colonies, modern, 236;
  • recent, 429.
  • commercial policy, modern, 242;
  • recent, 423;
  • to United States, 501.
  • finances in World War, 625.
  • manufactures, modern, 244;
  • recent, 423, 426, 428.
  • political development, medieval, 123;
  • modern, 255;
  • recent, 422, 427.
  • shipping, modern, 234;
  • about 1800, 346;
  • recent, 429, 599.
  • statistics, modern, 238;
  • recent, 429;
  • in World War, 623.
  • Frankfort on the Main, 45, 156, 257.
  • Free trade period, 351.
  • Fugger family, 151 ff.
  • Fulton, Robert, 518.
  • Furs, in Baltic trade, 103-252;
  • from America, 477.
  • Galveston, 585.
  • Genoa, 90, 98.
  • Germany, medieval, 95, 104;
  • modern, 250;
  • recent, 400;
  • in World War, 636 ff.
  • commercial policy, 401, 404 ff., 416 ff.
  • manufactures, modern, 256;
  • recent, 401, 410 ff.
  • mercantile organization, 413.
  • political development, medieval, 124;
  • modern, 255;
  • recent, 400, 637.
  • and Reparations, 627 ff.
  • shipping, 414, 599.
  • statistics, 409.
  • and the World War, 593, 597.
  • Gilds, craft, 49, 140;
  • in England, 211;
  • in France, 244;
  • in Germany, 256;
  • merchant, 47 ff.
  • Gladstone, W. E., 371.
  • Gold, in Australia, 342, 364;
  • in California, 537.
  • and prices, about 1900, 341.
  • in the World War, 600.
  • Grain trade, recent, 320.
  • Greece, ancient, 17;
  • recent, 465.
  • Hamburg, 74, 156, 257, 335.
  • Handicrafts, 36, 43, 48.
  • Hanseatic League, 104 ff.;
  • decline, 252.
  • Hargreaves, 214.
  • Havana, 183.
  • Hawkins, John, 202.
  • Henry IV of France, 234.
  • Henry the Navigator of Portugal, 130.
  • Huguenots, in England, 212;
  • in Netherland, 194;
  • in Prussia, 258.
  • Hungary, Magyar, 641.
  • Huskisson, 370.
  • India, British, 363.
  • Indigo, 81;
  • in United States, 471, 474, 535.
  • Industrial Revolution, 214.
  • Insurance, 159, 335.
  • Iron, medieval, 37;
  • modern, 215;
  • recent, 283 ff.;
  • as a ware, 319.
  • in England, 359, 379;
  • in Germany, 411;
  • in the United States, 542, 573.
  • Italy, medieval, 84;
  • modern, 263 ff.;
  • recent, 442 ff.
  • agriculture, 446, 449.
  • colonies, 448.
  • commercial policy, 443.
  • manufactures, 445, 447, 449.
  • political development, 124, 263, 442 ff.
  • shipping, 448.
  • Japan, recent commerce, 387.
  • conflict with Russia, 462.
  • and the United States, 550, 589, 651.
  • Jews, ancient, 12;
  • medieval, 84, 117;
  • in Poland, 643.
  • Jugo-Slavia, 639.
  • Kay, 214.
  • Law, John, 159.
  • Leghorn, 265, 443.
  • Leipzig, 257.
  • Levant trade, 79 ff.
  • Linen, 83, 323.
  • Liverpool, 224, 383.
  • Loire, 58, 61.
  • London, 38, 41, 74, 156, 202, 224, 382.
  • Louis XIV of France, 235.
  • Lubeck, 105, 253.
  • Machine tools, 284.
  • Machinery, 281 ff.;
  • in England, 360;
  • in France, 423;
  • in Germany, 403, 410;
  • in United States, 481, 561, 574.
  • Manor, medieval, 34, 41 ff.
  • Manufactures, medieval, 42;
  • town, 48;
  • modern, 140;
  • recent, 281.
  • See also names of chief countries.
  • domestic system, 211.
  • local distribution, 287.
  • Magellan, 134.
  • Marco Polo, 129.
  • Market, medieval, 33;
  • town, 51;
  • decline, 337.
  • Marseilles, 18, 99.
  • Mercantile system, 167.
  • Merchant, early, 39;
  • medieval, 113;
  • modern, 141;
  • recent, 334.
  • commission, 142.
  • wholesale, 142.
  • Merchants Adventurers, 201.
  • Staplers, 110.
  • Mesta, 179.
  • Mesopotamia, 10.
  • Miletos, 18.
  • Mobile, 548.
  • Money, medieval, 118;
  • modern, 136;
  • in World War, 600.
  • Napoleon I, 345.
  • III, 424, 427.
  • Nasmyth, James, 283.
  • Navigation, early, 13;
  • medieval, 38, 72, 129;
  • modern, 136;
  • recent, 302.
  • Navigation Acts, English, 223, 226;
  • reform, 373.
  • Necho, 10.
  • Netherlands, modern, 190 ff.;
  • recent, 431 ff.
  • colonial and commercial policy, 432.
  • manufacturers, 433.
  • Neutral trade, 347.
  • New Orleans, 548, 585.
  • New York, 489, 490, 547, 584.
  • Newspaper, 143.
  • Nineveh, 11.
  • Norway, 439.
  • Nuremberg, 45.
  • Odessa, 456.
  • Orders in Council, 347.
  • Panama Canal, 309.
  • Partnership, 116 ff.
  • Pedler, 113.
  • Peel, Sir Robert, 370.
  • Persia, 11.
  • Peter the Great, 267.
  • Petroleum, 320;
  • in United States, 575.
  • Philadelphia, 489, 490, 548, 585.
  • Phoenicia, 12.
  • Piracy, 75, 136.
  • Pisa, 90, 98.
  • Pittsburgh, 51, 61, 518.
  • Poland, 639, 642.
  • Pombal, 186.
  • Ports, medieval, 74;
  • modern, 137.
  • Portugal, modern, 184 ff.;
  • recent, 451.
  • Post, modern, 143;
  • recent, 310 ff.
  • Potash in United States, 471, 476, 535.
  • Prices, modern, 136;
  • recent, 341;
  • in World War, 602.
  • Privateers, medieval, 76;
  • modern, 144;
  • recent, 345.
  • Provisions, 322;
  • in United States, 473, 536, 566, 571.
  • Prussia, rise of, 257;
  • and Austria, 405;
  • and Germany, 417.
  • Railroad, 295 ff.;
  • in England, 360;
  • in Russia, 461;
  • in United States, 522, 553.
  • Reparation and the World War, 627.
  • Rhine, 58, 61, 255, 347.
  • Rhodes, 23.
  • Rice in United States, 471, 474, 535.
  • Richelieu, 234.
  • River trade, medieval, 55;
  • in Russia, 455;
  • in the United States, 486, 520.
  • Roads, Roman, 28;
  • medieval, 33, 54;
  • recent, 290 ff.
  • in American colonies, 485;
  • in Russia, 455;
  • in United States, 514.
  • Rome, 26 ff.;
  • provinces, 27.
  • Roumania, 465, 639.
  • Rubber, 324.
  • Russia, modern, 267;
  • recent, 454 ff.;
  • in World War, 643 ff.
  • agriculture, 460.
  • commercial policy, 456, 459.
  • manufactures, 458, 460.
  • ports, 456.
  • transportation, 455, 457, 461.
  • Saint Mary’s Falls Canal, 557.
  • Saint Petersburg, 267, 456.
  • San Francisco, 585.
  • Savannah, 548.
  • Seleukia, 22.
  • Servia, 465.
  • Shipping, ancient, 13;
  • Scandinavian, 70;
  • Mediterranean, 71;
  • modern, 137;
  • recent, 302;
  • in World War, 599.
  • See also names of countries.
  • Siberia, 462.
  • Sidon, 13.
  • Siemens-Martin steel, 286.
  • Silk, 82, 323.
  • Silver, 135, 182.
  • Slave trade, medieval, 37, 79;
  • modern, 222;
  • recent, 318.
  • Smuggling, on the Continent, 348;
  • in England, 225, 369;
  • in France, 242, 424;
  • in Spain, 178, 182.
  • South America, 349.
  • commerce with United States, 550, 589, 651.
  • South Sea Bubble, 158.
  • Soviets in Russia, 644.
  • Spain, medieval, 99;
  • modern, 174;
  • recent, 499 ff.
  • colonies, modern, 180;
  • recent, 450.
  • Speculation, modern, 156;
  • recent, 335 ff.
  • Spices, ancient, 38;
  • in Levant trade, 79.
  • Staple, 110, 127;
  • in Germany, 225;
  • abolition of the, 350.
  • Steamboat in United States, 516.
  • Steam engine, 275 ff.
  • Steamships, 304 ff.
  • Steam turbine, 276.
  • Steel, recent, 285 ff.;
  • in railroads, 297.
  • Stephenson, 295.
  • Store, country, in United States, 487.
  • Stourbridge Fair, 67.
  • Strassburg, 45.
  • Suez Canal, 10, 308.
  • Sugar, medieval, 80;
  • modern, 136, 239.
  • beet, 325.
  • in United States, 494, 579.
  • Sweden, 266;
  • recent, 438.
  • Switzerland, 435.
  • Syracuse, 22.
  • Telegraph, 311 ff.;
  • in recent commerce, 332;
  • wireless, 313.
  • Telephone, 312.
  • Textiles, medieval, 83;
  • recent, 322.
  • Tin, ancient, 13;
  • medieval, 109.
  • Tobacco, from America, 136;
  • in United States, 471, 473, 535.
  • Tolls, medieval, 57 ff.;
  • in France, 243;
  • in Germany, 255, 258;
  • abolition, 350.
  • Triest, 261.
  • Turnpikes, in Europe, 291;
  • in United States, 514.
  • Tyre, 13.
  • United States, recent, 469 ff.;
  • in World War, 648 ff.
  • and Africa, 491, 586, 651.
  • and Asia, 491, 586, 651.
  • and China, 491, 495, 550, 589.
  • and England, 362, 383, 492, 499, 548, 586, 608, 613.
  • and West Indies, 491, 493, 499, 501, 549.
  • agriculture, 472, 475, 567.
  • balance of trade, 653.
  • canals, 519, 556.
  • commercial policy, 498, 508, 545, 582.
  • exports, 471, 502, 530, 566, 650.
  • fisheries, 476.
  • imports, 477, 540, 578, 652.
  • manufactures, 476, 507, 541, 560, 580, 653.
  • ports, 489, 547, 584.
  • railroads, 521, 553.
  • roads, 489, 514.
  • shipping, 495, 501, 505, 523, 558, 599, 659.
  • statistics, 471, 477, 502, 511, 530, 549, 552, 566, 567, 578, 585,
  • 591, 648, 651, 654.
  • waterways, 486, 516, 556.
  • Vasco da Gama, 132.
  • Venice, 72, 75, 79, 84, 87, 90 ff.;
  • modern, 263 ff.
  • Vicko von Geldersen, 115.
  • Wares, ancient, 9, 12, 19;
  • medieval, 37;
  • modern, 135;
  • recent, 317 ff.
  • Wars, modern, 165;
  • Thirty Years’, 255;
  • recent, 345;
  • World War, 593 ff.
  • Watt, James, 276.
  • Wax, 103, 252.
  • Wheat, in United States, 471, 473, 536, 570.
  • Whitney, Eli, 533.
  • Winchester Fair, 68.
  • Wool, medieval, 110;
  • recent, 323.
  • Woolen manufacture, in England, 215;
  • in United States, 543.
  • Zollverein, 403.