A History of the Nineteenth Century, Year by Year. Volume 2 (of 3)

Nicholas Vasilievitch Gogol died on March 4 at Moscow. Born in 1810, at Soroczince, in the district Death of Gogol of Poltava, he began his career as a writer with poems and a metrical tragedy, written in the dialect of Little Russia. To this period belongs his ballad "Two Fishes." After travelling in Germany, he was called to a professorship at the patriotic institute of St. Petersburg, where he wrote his famous prose romances in Greater Russian dialect. His "Evenings at a Farm" admitted him to the literary circles of the capital and brought him the friendship of his fellow poet, Pushkin. He wrote a series of short stories, treating of life in the Russian provinces, and among the middle class, which were subsequently published in the collection of four volumes, entitled "Mirgorod." In 1833, Gogol brought out his satirical comedy, "The Commissioner," in which he laid bare the all-pervading corruption of Russian official life. After prolonged travels through Germany, France, Italy and Palestine, Gogol returned to Russia and "Dead Souls" settled near St. Petersburg. He wrote more short stories and descriptions of travel, and finally published the incomplete satirical novel, "Dead Souls," which is the best of his works. In this novel he handled Russian life fearlessly, with satirical comments on the weak points of Russian society. It is stated that he finished the story before his death, but burned the manuscript. When he died he was acknowledged as the best writer of satirical prose in Russia.

On February 20, Lord Palmerston was enabled to make his former colleagues in the Cabinet feel his power. Owing to general vague apprehensions that Prince Louis Napoleon might revive his illustrious namesake's projects Palmerston's revenge against England, a cry had arisen for the strengthening of the national defences. To satisfy this demand, Lord John Russell brought in a local militia bill. Lord Palmerston promptly moved an amendment for a general volunteer force instead of local militia, thus totally altering the nature Earl of Derby Premier of the bill. The amendment was sustained by a majority of eleven votes. Lord John Russell's Ministry thereupon resigned, and the Earl of Derby was called in. The most conspicuous member of the new Cabinet was Benjamin Disraeli, who took the portfolio of the Exchequer. Disraeli by this time had already achieved popularity as an author. Some idea of his personality may be gathered from a contemporary's description of his outward appearance in those days:

"Usually he wore a slate-colored velvet coat lined with satin, purple Disraeli's appearance trousers with a gold band down the outside seam, a scarlet waistcoat, long lace ruffles falling down to the tips of his fingers, white gloves with brilliant rings outside them, and long black ringlets rippling down over his shoulders. When he rose in the House, he wore a bottle-green frock coat, with a white waistcoat, collarless, and a needless display of gold chains."

The new Ministry was so distinctly protectionist that the Anti-Corn Law League was reorganized to resume the agitation for free trade. Soon the perennial troubles with America about the fisheries of Newfoundland broke out afresh. The new Foreign Secretary, the Earl of Malmesbury, insisted upon a strict fulfilment of the terms agreed upon in the convention of American fisheries dispute 1818. Armed vessels were sent to the coast of British North America. The United States likewise sent a war steamer to the disputed fishing-grounds. Many vessels were boarded for information, but both sides abstained from giving serious grounds for complaint.

In the United States, the Whigs, encouraged by their success with Taylor, put forth another military officer, General Scott, as their Presidential candidate. At the convention held in Baltimore in June, Webster, Fillmore and Scott were put in nomination. Fifty-two ballots were cast before Scott was nominated. The candidates before the Democratic Convention in Baltimore Franklin Pierce elected were Buchanan, Cass, Marcy and Douglas. Franklin Pierce was chosen after more than forty ballots. The Free Democrats selected John P. Hale and Julian of Indiana. Pierce carried twenty-seven States, to Scott's four, receiving 254 votes to Scott's 42.

Henry Clay died in June. He was a candidate for the Presidency three times. Death of Clay Few Americans have been more idolized than he. His great success was largely due to his manner, which captivated opponents as well as friends. In will and fine sense of honor he was as firm and lofty as Jackson or Jefferson. He it was who said that he would "rather be right than Death of Webster President." His death was followed in October by that of his great rival, Daniel Webster. This great American orator was born in 1782, the son of a New England farmer. He was graduated from Dartmouth College, and began the study of law. While reading Vattel, Webster's oratory Montesquieu, and Blackstone, he eked out a humble income as a school teacher. He became associated with Christopher Gore, a noted lawyer of those days in Boston, and presently acquired a reputation as an orator. An address delivered at Fryeburg in 1802 furnished the model for his great Concord speech four years later. As The Concord speech a result of the speeches in opposition to Jefferson's and Madison's embargo policy against England, Daniel Webster was elected by the Federalists of New Hampshire to represent them in the Thirteenth Congress. Henceforth Webster's stirring addresses were delivered in the national forum of the Webster in Congress United States. Pitted against such distinguished speakers as Calhoun and Henry Clay, he gradually came to be acknowledged the foremost orator of America. He was at the height of his reputation when he died. His most lasting achievement, perhaps, was the conclusion of the famous Webster-Ashburton treaty with England, settling the boundaries between British North America and the United States.

Shortly before Webster's death another orator of world-wide reputation was heard at Washington. This was Louis Kossuth, the Hungarian exile. On the occasion of a banquet tendered to him by the American Congress early in the year, Kossuth delivered the famous speech in which he compared the Roman Senate of antiquity to that of the New World.

Junius Brutus Booth, the great English tragedian, died in America while returning from a lucrative tour to California. Booth made his début at Covent Junius Brutus Booth Garden Theatre in London in 1814 as Richard III. His personal resemblance to the hunchbacked tyrant conformed so well to the traditions of the stage, and his personification of the character was in other respects so striking, that he eclipsed Edmund Keane, then acting at Drury Lane. The rivalry of the two actors grew so intense that Booth was driven from the stage by a serious theatrical riot. In 1821, he made his first appearance in the United States, again as Richard III., and was received with such enthusiasm that he settled permanently at Baltimore. From here he made professional excursions to other American cities. Among his most familiar personations were Iago, Hamlet, Shylock, Sir Giles Overreach, and Sir Edmund Mortimer. Over his audiences he ever exercised a wonderful power. On his death he left two sons, both actors like himself, and both destined to make their mark in life.

The death of Thomas Moore, the Irish poet, excited as much attention in Death of Tom Moore America as it did in England. Born at Dublin in 1779, Tom Moore, as he was usually called, wrote verses in early youth. Like Pope, he may be said to have lisped in numbers. At the age of thirteen he was a contributor to the "Anthologia Hibernica." After graduating at Trinity College he came to London, and there dedicated his translation of the poems of Anacreon to the Prince Regent. He became a favorite of fashionable society. Among his patrons were the Earl of Moira, Lord Holland, the Marquis of Lansdowne, and other noblemen of the Whig party. He obtained the appointment of Registrar to the Admiralty in Bermuda, but on arriving there hired a deputy to Moore's American impressions discharge the duties of the office and went on a tour to America. Like some other famous travellers, he conceived a poor opinion of the American people. In commemoration of his trip, Moore brought out "Epistles, Odes and other Poems," containing many defamatory verses on America. One scurrilous stanza read:

In a footnote Moore was careful to explain that this allusion was to the President of the United States, Thomas Jefferson. The poems were roughly handled by the "Edinburgh Review." This led to a duel between Moore and Jeffrey—a bloodless encounter, which resulted in a life-long friendship "Irish Melodies" between the two men. The same affair produced a quarrel and Moore's subsequent friendship with Byron. Throughout this time Moore brought out his charming "Irish Melodies," the most popular of all his productions. Messrs. Longwin, the publishers, agreed to give him £3,000 for a long poem "Lalla Rookh" on an oriental subject. Moore retired to the banks of the Dofe, surrounded himself with oriental books, and in three years produced "Lalla Rookh." The success of this work was beyond the expectations of the publishers. After achieving this triumph, Moore travelled abroad in the company of the wealthy poet Rogers, and later of Lord John Russell. At Venice he visited Lord Byron. The affairs of his office in Bermuda next called him there, after which he resided in Paris, where he wrote his famous "Fables for the Holy Alliance." Returning to England, he settled at Bow-wood near Wiltshire, the seat of his life-long friend, Lord Lansdowne. There he spent his declining years and died in dotage.

Tom Moore, while a very popular poet, produced few poems of lasting quality. Most characteristic of Moore, perhaps, are his lightest verses, such as "The Time I Lost in Wooing," the melodious lines "Oft, in the Stilly Night," or the famous Irish apostrophe:

The death of Wellington, on September 14, was felt as a national loss in Death of Wellington England. The Iron Duke died in his eighty-fourth year, having grown more and more infirm in his last few years. Arthur Wellesley, or Wesley, as the name was originally written, singularly enough received his first military education in France, under the direction of Pignorel, the celebrated engineer. He saw his first active service with the Duke of York's disastrous expedition to the Netherlands in 1794. There he gained his colonelcy. After his transfer to India he served under his elder brother, Marquis Wellesley, and gained the brilliant victories of Assaye and of Wellesley's campaigns Argaum. On his return from India he was appointed Secretary of Ireland, and there established the celebrated police force which later served as a model for that of London. In 1807, he took part in the expedition against Copenhagen, and after the death of Sir John Moore was sent to Portugal, where he won the battles of Rolica, Vimiera, the brilliant passage of the Douro, and the hard-fought field of Talavera. The battle of Busaco, the storming of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, the victories of Salamanca and Vittoria, followed, and the Viscount successively became Earl and Marquis of Wellington, and a grant from Parliament subsequently placed him in possession of the domain of Strathfieldsaye. The capture of Pampeluna and St. Sebastian, and the defeat of the French in the passes of the Pyrenees, enabled him to plant the British ensign on French ground.

The concluding triumphs of Orthes and Toulouse were succeeded by the general peace and by his own promotion to a dukedom, the baton of a field-marshal having previously been conferred upon him for his victory at Salamanca. In 1814, the Duke of Wellington was appointed Ambassador to France, and proceeded in that capacity to the Congress of Vienna. While there, the return of Napoleon from Elba once more called him to the field; and on June 18, 1815, he gained his greatest triumph at Waterloo. After this Wellington served his country in the capacity of a diplomat, as Commander-in-Chief of the army, Prime Minister, and again as Commander-in-Chief of the army. A public funeral was of course decreed. Wellington's funeral William Gladstone pronounced the funeral oration in Parliament. In the procession that followed Wellington's bier, British soldiers of every arm and of every regiment of the service for the first time marched together. From Grosvenor Gate to St. Paul's Cathedral there was not a foot of unoccupied ground. An unbroken silence was maintained as the procession moved slowly by to the mausoleum where the remains of England's great warrior were to be placed side by side with those of Nelson. Alfred Tennyson recited his famous ode on the death of the Duke of Wellington:

A new Parliament assembled in November. The result of the elections left the government in as hopeless a minority as before. An elaborate system of finance brought forward by Disraeli was rudely handled by Gladstone. The Disraeli and Gladstone debate was one of the fiercest ever heard in Parliament. The excitement on both sides was intense. Disraeli, animated by the power of desperation, was in a mood neither to give nor to take quarter. He assailed Sir Charles Wood, the late Chancellor of the Exchequer, with a vehemence which more than once went to the very limits of Parliamentary decorum. The House had not heard the concluding word of Disraeli's bitter and impassioned speech, when Gladstone leaped to his feet to answer him. The Government was defeated. Disraeli took his defeat with characteristic composure. The morning was cold and wet. "It will be an unpleasant day for going to Osborne," he quietly remarked to a friend as they went down Westminster Hall together and looked out into the dreary street. That day, at Osborne, the resignation of the Ministry was accepted by the Queen.

The Earl of Aberdeen formed a new Ministry including Lord John Russell as New English Ministry Foreign Secretary; Lord Palmerston, Home Secretary; Earl Granville, President of the Council; Gladstone, Chancellor of the Exchequer, while Sir W. Molesworth, the historian, was Commissioner of Public Works. The Marquis of Lansdowne occupied a seat in the Cabinet without holding any office. It was another Ministry of all the talents. Recent events in France demanded instant attention, the more so since the municipal council of London had taken upon itself to send an address of congratulation to Louis Napoleon upon his assumption of the empire. In the end the British Government took the same course.

In Paris, the Senate had been reconvened to consider the reinstitution of End of French Republic the empire. Within three days a senatus consultum was ready recommending the desired change to another plebiscite. Every one of the Senators, so the Parisians suggested, had 30,000 francs' worth of reasons for advocating the change. The formality of a plebiscite was accomplished by November 21. The government functionaries reported 7,854,189 yeas against 253,145 nays. On the anniversary of his coup d'état of the previous year, Louis Napoleon took the title of Napoleon III., by the grace of God and the will of the Second Empire nation, Emperor of the French. The title was made hereditary. In vain did the Count of Chambord voice the protest of the Royalists, and Victor Hugo, in his exile on the Island of Jersey, that of the Republicans. France was once more under imperial rule, and seemed content to remain so. About this time the great Crédit Mobilier was established as a joint-stock company by Isaac and Emile Pereire.

Outside of France, Louis Napoleon's second coup d'état created little stir. Only Emperor Nicholas of Russia refused to recognize Louis Napoleon Holy Sepulchre controversy as a full-fledged monarch. An ecclesiastical dispute concerning the guardianship of the holy places in Palestine threatened to make trouble between France and Russia. In the end the Sultan was prevailed upon to sign a treaty confirming the sole custody of the Holy Sepulchre to the French.

1853

ON JANUARY 30, Louis Napoleon married Eugénie Marie de Montijo de Guzman, a Empress Eugénie Spanish beauty. Raised to the rank of Empress, this ambitious lady at once became a leader of fashion. The Czar of Russia, acting in conformity with the sovereigns of Austria and Prussia, finally consented to acknowledge Napoleon III. as Emperor of the French, and Great Britain followed. Strengthened by this outward recognition, Louis Napoleon deemed it safe to extend an amnesty to some 4,500 political prisoners and Republican exiles. On February 5, however, General Saint-Priest, with many other Royalists, was secretly arrested on charges of communicating with the Comte de Chambord and of sending false news to foreign newspapers. Not long afterward a bill was passed restoring capital punishment for attempts to subvert the imperial government and for plots against the life of the Emperor. On the recognition of the Empire by Great Britain, application was made to the English Government for a surrender of the Great Napoleon's last testament. The request was granted. Louis Napoleon thereupon undertook to carry out his famous uncle's bequests. Under the stress of adversity, the two branches of the Bourbon family became reconciled to each other. The French Royalists reconciled Duke de Nemours, on behalf of the House of Orleans, made his peace with the Comte de Chambord. Henceforth, the Count of Paris was recognized by the Royalists of France as the rightful pretender to the crown.

In Germany, reactionary measures of repression were still in order. An alleged democratic conspiracy was unearthed at Berlin in March, and another Gervinus' State trial in April. In Baden, Georg Gervinus, the historian, on charges of high treason for writing his "Introduction to the History of the Nineteenth Century," was sentenced to ten months' imprisonment, and his book was ordered to be burned. The sentence of imprisonment, however, was not executed. On April 28, Ludwig Tieck, the great German Shakespearian scholar and romantic poet, died at Berlin. Born in 1778 at Berlin, he entered into Death of Tieck literary activity at the opening of the Nineteenth Century, and joined the enlightened circle of Weimar. There he issued his great collection of German medieval romances, and of the works of the Minnesingers. It was he who drew Goethe into the study of Shakespeare, and who persuaded Henry Steffens, the Norwegian philosopher, to try his hand at purely literary productions. Together with Schlegel he was the greatest German exponent of the works of Shakespeare.

In Italy, likewise, severe measures of reaction were inflicted on the people of the governments of Austria, Naples and some of the petty principalities. In Tuscany, the reading of the Bible was prohibited. In February, a revolt at Milan, instigated by Mazzini, was ruthlessly put Reaction in Italy down. A few months later a revolutionary plot was revealed at Rome. Some hundred and fifty conspirators were thrown into prison. As heretofore, Garibaldi figured in these movements. In Sardinia alone, under the enlightened Ministry of Count Cavour, the liberal movement for united Italy was encouraged. The Pope's hostile attitude was resented by the passage of anti-clerical measures in Sardinia. Thus at first ecclesiastical jurisdiction was abolished, and later bills were proposed for the suppression of convents and for the ultimate withdrawal of all State support from the clergy.

In October, while the conspiracy trials were still in full prosecution at Milan, Tommaso Grossi, the Italian romantic poet, died in that city. Grossi Tommaso Grossi was born at Belland, on Lake Como, in 1791, and at an early age won distinction by a patriotic satire against Austrian rule in northern Italy. In 1817 he published "La Fuggitiva," a love story of the French wars, which found great favor. Inspired by his intercourse with Manzoni, a few years later he wrote "Ildegonda," a romantic poem treating of the times of chivalry and cloister life. This poem won a great success. Less happy was his attempt to rival Tasso with an epic poem in fifteen cantos on the Crusades. Among his prose tales, the most lasting in interest are the historical novel "Marco Visconti" and the idyl "Ulrico e Lida." Of his lyric songs, "La Rondiella" achieved the greatest popularity.

Gustave Courbet, the French originator of realism Gustave Courbet in painting, the author of "Le Beau c'est le Laid," the man who claimed that all search for the beautiful or ideality in art was a gross error, this year exhibited his "Women Bathing," and again created a stir on the exhibition of his "Funeral at Ornans" and his "Drunken Peasants at Flagny." This early exponent of realism in its most radical form, despite his taste for vulgar types, showed such strength of technique that his landscapes were accepted almost at once as masterpieces.

In England, a period of great prosperity had set in, notwithstanding several great labor strikes, among them that of the London cabmen, and of many thousands of operatives at Stockport and Preston. The success of the International expositions Crystal Palace Exhibition had been such that another great Industrial Exhibition was held at Dublin. It was made the occasion of Queen Victoria's second visit to Ireland. International expositions were likewise held at Berlin and in New York.

The change of Administration in the United States of North America gave a new tone to affairs there, and incidentally brought America into closer touch with the East. Congress had counted the electoral vote on February 9, giving to Pierce 254 and 42 to Scott. Franklin Pierce was forty-nine years President Pierce inaugurated of age when he became President, and was the youngest man who had been elected to that office. During the Mexican war he had fought with credit under Scott. William L. Marcy became Secretary of State, and Guthrie, McClelland, Jefferson Davis, Dobbin, Campbell and Cushing completed the Cabinet. It was said that Pierce came into office with no bitter opposition and went out with none. In his inaugural message he spoke with doubt concerning his own powers. In truth, he proved himself the tool of different managers.

The American Government also assisted Grinnell in fitting out a second Kane's Arctic voyage expedition to the Arctic under charge of Dr. Kane, who was surgeon and naturalist of the former expedition. The ships were frozen fast on the shores of Greenland. Kane's crew, without waiting for relief, set out to return in open boats, and after a voyage of 1,300 miles reached a Danish settlement in Greenland, where a relief expedition met them. They reached New York on October 11, 1855, where they were welcomed as men risen from the dead. They brought no news concerning Sir John Franklin.

Dominique François Arago died on October 2, at the age of sixty-seven. Death of Arago Scientists remember him chiefly for his experiments and discoveries in magnetism and optics. He was one of the few men who championed Fresnel during the controversy which raged at the time when the undulatory theory of light was first announced. As a popular expounder of scientific facts, Arago had few equals. With Gay-Lussac he was the founder of "Annales de Chimie et de Physique." He was also an active politician, and was a member of the French Provisional Government of 1848.

A thriving oriental trade had sprung up, fostered partly by the development of steam navigation and partly by the discovery of gold in California. A few years previously a first attempt had been made by the United States Government to break down if possible the system of exclusion kept up by Japan. Commodore Biddle was despatched with two war vessels. His mission proved unsatisfactory, and the Commodore was subjected to humiliating experiences. Early in 1853, President Fillmore sent Commodore Perry with a squadron of four vessels to present a letter from the President of the The opening of Japan United States to the Mikado of Japan, asking consent to the negotiation of a treaty of friendship and commerce between the two governments. On July 7, Commodore Perry's squadron steamed into the harbor of Yeddo. Perry got a favorable reception after using his big guns. The President's letter was left with the Mikado for the consideration of the Japanese Government, while Perry sailed away, promising to return the following spring. In the meanwhile violent upheavals in Japan resulted from the appearance of the American mission at Yeddo. The appearance of the squadron had long been anticipated, and was the subject of violent political discussions. Japan at that time was threatened with civil war. Two parties were disputing Japanese dissensions concerning the proper successor to the worn-out Shogun, who had hitherto wielded the powers of the impotent Mikado. The head of one party was Ee Kamong No Kami, the head of the Fudai Daimios. By right he was to be appointed Regent in case of an emergency. The head of the other party was the Prince of Mito, one of the "three families," hereditary Vice-Shogun in Yeddo, and connected by marriage with the family of the Emperor and with the wealthiest Daimios. The two parties made the arrival of the American squadron a pretext for grasping at the reins of power. Letters were sent to all the Daimios and Ometkis, requesting their opinions as to the reception to be given to the Americans. The majority were for resenting any foreign interference in the affairs of Japan by force. It was agreed, however, that Preparing for intrusion open declaration of war had best be deferred until the comparatively defenceless shores of Japan could be strengthened and sea forts could be erected. Orders were sent to the Daimios to muster the full strength of their retainers and munitions of war, for "if Japan does not conquer, it will be a great disgrace."

In China, the Taipings, having captured Kinkiang and Gurking, closely invested Nanking. After a fortnight's siege, the city surrendered to an armed rabble. The Tartar colony of 200,000 threw themselves upon Tien Wang's mercy, but not a hundred of them escaped: "We killed them all," said Taipings capture Nanking one of the Taipings; "we left not a root to sprout from." The acquisition of Nanking, the second city in the empire, made the Taipings a formidable rival to the Manchus, and Tien Wang became a contestant with Hienfung for imperial honors. It cut off communication between north and south China. Chinkiangfoo, at the entrance of the Grand Canal, and Yangchow, on the north bank of the river, also fell into their hands. Tien Wang proclaimed Nanking, the old Ming city, his capital. At a council of war it was decided to provision and fortify Nanking, and then march against Peking. By the end of May the Taiping army numbered 80,000. They attacked Kaifong and were Peking threatened repulsed, but continued their march toward Peking. After crossing the Hoang-ho, they were again repulsed at Hwaiking. Passing on, they defeated a Manchu force in the Sin Simming Pass, and in September added the province of Pechili, and came to Tsing, twenty miles south of Tien-tsin, less than a hundred miles from Peking. The fate of the Manchu dynasty trembled in the balance. The Mongol levies at last arrived under their great chief, Sankolinsin, and the invaders retired to their fortified camp at Tsinghai and sent to Tien Wang for succor. At Tsinghai they were closely beleaguered for some time to come.

The recurrence of American filibustering expeditions to Cuba appeared to the governments of England and France as evidence of an American purpose to secure Cuba and the West Indian Islands. To avert this, they suggested to the United States Government to make a treaty which should secure Cuba to Spain. The American Government was asked "to decline now and forever American declaration as to Cuba hereafter all intention to obtain possession of the island of Cuba and to discontinue all such attempts in that direction on the part of any individual or power whatever." Secretary of State Everett replied that the question affected American and not European policy, coming not properly within the scope of the interference of European Cabinets; that the United States did not intend to violate any existing laws; that the American Government claimed the right to act regarding Cuba independently of any other power, and that it could not view with indifference the fall of Cuba into any other hands than those of Spain. This was tantamount to a reassertion of the Monroe Doctrine. France did not reply to Everett's note, and the correspondence with the British Foreign Office was scarcely more satisfactory.

A new treaty with Mexico was negotiated by Gadsden, by which the United Gadsden's Mexican treaty States secured Marrila Valley, with 44,000 square miles, on the payment of $10,000,000. This settled the Mexican boundary dispute and averted all danger of further war.

Another international complication had arisen with Austria. On June 21, Martin Koszta, a Hungarian refugee and would-be American citizen, Koszta episode travelling under a United States passport, was arrested by the Austrian consul at Smyrna. Captain Ingraham of the United States sloop-of-war "St. Louis," cruising in Turkish waters, hearing of this, put into Smyrna. In accordance with the recent treaty governing Austrian refugees in Turkey, he demanded the surrender of Koszta within eight hours. If the man were not surrendered he threatened to land marines and take him by force. It was finally agreed to leave Koszta in the hands of the French consul, who presently released him. Austria issued a circular note to the courts of Europe protesting against the conduct of Captain Ingraham, and followed this up with a formal protest to the government of the United States. The reply of the American Congress was to vote a medal for Captain Ingraham. There the incident closed.

Other affairs absorbed the interest of Austria's Foreign Minister. A treaty was signed with Prussia establishing a virtual defensive and offensive alliance. At the same time Austria joined the German Zollverein for twelve years. When the Montenegrins rose against their Turkish oppressors, Austria supported their cause and demanded a redress of their grievances from Austria supports Montenegrins Turkey. After protracted negotiations this was granted. The wrongs of the Montenegrins and other Christian subjects of Turkey were warmly espoused by Russia. Czar Nicholas, as the pontiff of the Russian-Greek Church, claimed a protectorate over the Greek Christians in Turkey. The pending difficulties concerning the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem became part of the Russia threatens Turkey controversy. On the pretext of legalizing the predominant position of the Greek Church as one of the guardians of the Holy Sepulchre, the Czar assumed a threatening attitude toward Turkey. For a while Lord Stratford Canning, the British Ambassador at Constantinople, succeeded in mediating between Russia and France. A temporary agreement was effected. At this point the appearance of a French fleet in Turkish waters gave great offence to Russia, making it appear that the concessions to France had been extorted by a menace. Already Sir Hamilton Seymour, the British Ambassador at St. Petersburg, had been sounded by the Czar. It was on that occasion that Nicholas uttered the historic phrase that "the sick man was dying," meaning the Ottoman Empire. It was then, too, that tentative offers were made to England to let her take Egypt and the island of Candia, provided Russia could make herself mistress of the Balkans.

The traditional aspirations of Russia toward Constantinople were well International concern understood in Europe. With the exception of Prussia, the European Powers, contrary to the Czar's expectations, were resolved to preserve the integrity of Turkey.

The Continental Powers diplomatically met the Czar on his own religious ground. Protestant England, on the other hand, with no pilgrims to defend, could protest only on the score of preserving the balance of power. A deeper reason for British opposition lay in the possible opening of the Black Sea to Russian commerce, and the consequent loss of oriental trade to English merchants. Louis Napoleon, who could hardly begin his imperial reign in France more auspiciously than by avenging the disasters of his immortal uncle and of the Grand Army in Russia, entered the lists as the Austria's timely measures champion of the Roman Catholic Christians of the Orient. Austria, though she took no active part against her recent ally, ingeniously frustrated the plans of the Russian autocrat by bringing the Sultan to terms in his attempt to crush the insurgent Montenegrins, who had been incited by Russia to revolt. Thus was Nicholas robbed of his best pretext for impressing his will upon Turkey. Chagrined at the triumph of Austria, angered by the demands made by the French Ambassador, Marquis de Lavalette, in behalf of Roman Catholic pilgrims, Nicholas sent his Admiral, Prince Menzikov, as Ambassador Extraordinary to the Porte. With unusual ostentation MenzikovMenzikov's mission gathered the Russian fleet and an army of 30,000 men at Sebastopol, and then went alone to Constantinople. He demanded an audience of the Sultan, and on March 2 appeared before him in a plain overcoat and with boots covered with dust. His appearance was in keeping with his mission. In the name of his master he demanded the protectorate over all Greek Christians. French-English naval demonstration Failing to attain his end, Menzikov, after a six weeks' stay, delivered a Russian ultimatum. Late in May he left Constantinople, prophesying his speedy reappearance in uniform. Three weeks later the French and English fleets cast anchor in the entrance to the Dardanelles.

It was not to be expected that a ruler like Nicholas would shrink from war. On July 7, he despatched Prince Michael Gortschakov, together with two army Russians cross Pruth divisions of 40,000 men each, respectively commanded by Generals Lueders and Danneberg, across the Pruth, with orders to hold the Danube principalities until the Sultan had granted the Russian demands. Sultan Abdul Majid, through his grand vizier, Reschid Pasha, issued a firman recognizing the rights of his Christian subjects. Upon crossing the Pruth, Cossacks in Danube provinces the Russian Commander-in-Chief assured the people of Moldavia and Wallachia that their property and persons would not be molested; but the Russian soldiers seized the public funds, compelled peasants to give up their cattle and their grain, and pressed the native militia into the Czar's service.

Still, European diplomats hoped to preserve peace. The Porte was persuaded not to regard the invasion of the Danube principalities as a casus belli. The conference which was held by the representatives of the Powers resulted in the Viennese mediatory note, by the terms of which the Sultan was to yield to the Czar, with certain restrictions. Russia's claim of a protectorate was utterly ignored. The Czar accepted the conditions imposed, but held that the note gave him the desired protectorate by implication. In England, the press fiercely attacked the faint-hearted politicians of the Turkish ultimatum Continent. Layard, the discoverer of the royal palaces of Nineveh, appeared as the champion of Turkey in the House of Commons. Still more threatening was the attitude of the war party in Constantinople. The Sultan was forced to reject the note and to prepare for the storm. Hatred of Russia and religious fanaticism inspired the Turks with something of the old love of battle and lust of conquest. On October 4, an ultimatum was sent to Russia in which war was threatened if the invaded territory were not forthwith Russia declares war evacuated. Russia replied with a declaration of war on November 1. The Sultan, for complying with the wishes of his people, was rewarded by the ready payment of heavy war taxes, and by hordes of volunteers flocking to arms. Even Tunis and Egypt placed troops at the disposal of the mother country. In a short time a considerable fighting force was gathered under Oltenizza Omar Pasha on the south bank of the Danube. On the 4th of November the river was crossed and a defeat inflicted on the Russians at Oltenizza.

Had the Czar sent his troops into the Balkans immediately after he declared war, he might have struck a decisive blow before the Powers could come to the assistance of the Turks. But he had pledged himself not to cross the Danube when he met the Emperor of Austria at Olmütz, and again when he visited the King of Prussia in Berlin. Thus he had persuaded them to adopt a policy of neutrality. England and France now promised to give Turkey their armed support if the Czar persisted in his demands. Their fleets sailed for the Bosphorus.

At Sinope, a Turkish squadron composed of two steamers, two corvettes and seven frigates rode at anchor under the guns of a small battery. On November 30, the Turks were surprised by a Russian fleet commanded by Turkish naval disaster Admiral Nachimov, consisting of six ships of the line and three steamers—all vessels of large size, armed with the smooth-bore shell-gun. For the first time in naval history the disastrous effect of shell fire on wooden ships was demonstrated. Only one Turkish steamer escaped to tell the tale.

This blow, dealt beneath the very guns of the allied fleets, had its immediate effect. Lord Aberdeen, whose foreign policy was far too mild for the taste of most Englishmen, was so bitterly attacked that he resigned. The return of Palmerston to the Ministry was the signal for war. In December, the Vienna Conference sent to Nicholas a second note, demanding the evacuation of the Danube principalities.

1854

IN THE American Congress, on January 4, Senator Douglas introduced a bill Opening of Nebraska for opening the Territory of Nebraska. All land west of Iowa and Missouri had been closed against immigrants, so that it was impossible for them to secure a farm. By "Nebraska" was meant all territory north of Texas westward to the Rocky Mountains. On January 23, Douglas introduced his second bill, repealing the provisions of the Missouri Compromise for the proposed two Territories. This reopened the slavery discussion, which President Pierce six weeks before had declared to be closed forever. At the East, Mason and Dixon's line between Pennsylvania and Maryland had been regarded as separating freedom from slavery. At the West, the parallel of American slavery issue revived 36° 30', agreed on in 1820, was regarded as the border line. To cross this boundary, and remove all obstacles against slavery, promptly became the determination of the South. Douglas's bill now declared that the Compromise of 1850 left the question of slavery to the people within the Territory. General Cass gave to this doctrine the title of "Squatter Sovereignty." The bill passed by 113 to 100, and was taken up by the Senate, May 24, and passed by 35 to 13. President Pierce signed it on May 30. By the provisions of the bill, the country in question was to be organized into the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska; the slavery question was to be settled by the residents; the Supreme Court was to determine the title to slaves, if appeal was taken from the local courts, and the Fugitive Slave law was to be enforced. The Whig Party was destroyed and the Republican Party rose in its place. On July 6, a State Convention of all anti-Nebraska Rise of Republican Party citizens irrespective of former political affiliations assembled. This Convention designated the fusion of Whigs, Free Soilers, "Know Nothings," and Democrats who opposed the extension of slavery, by the name "Republicans."

Within the three months immediately preceding, treaties had been quietly made with a half score of Indian nations in Kansas, by which the greater part of the soil for 200 miles west was opened. In June, within a few days after the act had been passed, hundreds of Missourians crossed into Kansas, took up quarter-sections and claimed the right of pre-emption upon the eastern region. In Massachusetts and other Eastern States, societies were Opening of Kansas meanwhile formed for the purpose of making Kansas a free State. All the Northwest was eager to furnish squatters. In the East, Eli Thayer organized immigration to Kansas. When the country was thrown open to settlement, the company which he had organized took up claims at Lawrence. A population of 8,000 pressed in from the North. Meetings were held in Missouri in the slave interest, which pledged that State to send men to Kansas and remove all the Free State immigrants. A bloody election was held in Kansas. The pro-slavery Legislature made it a felony to circulate anti-slavery publications, or to deny the right to hold slaves. Reeder, the newly appointed first Governor, arrived. An election was ordered to choose a delegate for Congress. Armed Missourians from across the border took Fraudulent elections possession of the polls, and by methods of intimidation elected Whitfield, a slave-holding delegate, to Congress. At a second election 13 State Senators and 26 members of a Lower House were declared elected. For this purpose 6,320 votes were cast—more than twice the number of legal voters.

Foreign affairs for a short while served to distract attention from the all-engrossing subject. Mexican boundary disputes were further ended by a Mexican adjustment repeal of the obligation of Guadeloupe Hidalgo which required the Mexican frontier to be defended against the Indians. For this release the United States paid to Mexico $10,000,000.

A reciprocity treaty was made with Great Britain which opened to the United States all the frontiers of British America except Newfoundland, and gave to the British the right to share the American fisheries to the 36th Reciprocity with Canada parallel. Commerce in breadstuffs, fish, animals and lumber between the United States and the British provinces was made free. The St. Lawrence and Canadian Canals were opened to American vessels. All future differences were to be settled by arbitration.

During this year news arrived of the safe arrival of Fremont's fifth expedition to California. He had Fremont in California crossed the Rocky Mountains at the sources of the Arkansas and Colorado Rivers, passed through the Mormon settlement, and discovered a number of passes. He was chosen the first United States Senator from California, and served for a short term.

On February 28, the American steamship "Black Warrior" was seized in Havana Harbor, and was confiscated by the Spanish Government on the charge of Cuban filibusters filibustering. The American House of Representatives prepared to suspend the neutrality laws between the United States and Spain; but it was finally decided to demand an indemnity from Spain. This action gave an interest to filibustering operations in Cuba. Expeditions were fitted out, but were stopped by a proclamation of the President on June 1. The American representatives at the courts of England, France and Spain, by direction of the President, met at Ostend, Belgium, to confer on the best method of settling the difficulties of Cuba and obtaining possession of the island. In the Ostend Circular these diplomats recommended to the government of the United States that Cuba should be purchased if possible, and if that could not be done that it should be taken by force. "If Spain, actuated by Ostend manifesto stubborn pride and a false sense of honor, should refuse to sell Cuba to the United States, then by every law, human and divine, we shall be justified in wresting it from Spain if we possess the power." In this Messrs. Buchanan, Mason and Soule were held to have gone beyond the demands of public opinion.

In their camp at Isinghai the Taiping rebels, in China, were closelyCourse of Taipings beleaguered through the early part of the year until spring. Their provisions then becoming exhausted, they cut their way out and retreated southward. A relieving army from Nanking rescued them from imminent capture. They then captured Lintsing, where their headquarters remained for some months. During the rest of the year their successes were unimportant.

In South Africa, the difficulties of administering the recalcitrant communities of the Boers in the Orange River territory proved such that Orange Free State recognized during this year the struggle was abandoned as hopeless by the British authorities. The Orange River Free State, organized as an independent republic of Dutch settlers, was recognized as such.

On June 28, another military insurrection broke out near Madrid. General Espartero assumed charge of the movement. It found favor in Madrid and Espartero in Spain Barcelona. Within a fortnight the Ministry was overthrown. On July 19, Baldomero Espartero was welcomed with great enthusiasm on his return to power. On the last day of the month the Queen had to present herself on the balcony of her palace in Madrid while 3,000 revolutionists from the barricades paraded before her. Espartero on his return to power forthwith convoked the Cortes to frame a new liberal constitution, a task which was accomplished before the close of the year.

In Mexico, the celebrated operatic singer Henriette Sontag died of cholera. Born at Coblenz in 1805, she made an early début, and appeared with brilliant success in all the capitals of Europe, Death of Sontag where she was recognized as a worthy rival of Malibran. In 1829 she married Count Rossi, and in the following year retired from the stage. Twenty years later, in consequence of the loss of her fortune, she returned to the stage, and it was found that her voice had lost none of its power and charm.

In the Balkans, the Servians, Bulgarians and the Bosnians, in view of the meagre success of Russian arms so far, were disinclined to rise against The Crimean war Turkey. In Greece, on the other hand, Russian partisans succeeded in inciting the populace to revolt. From all sides volunteers rushed to the northern frontier. There was even some talk of establishing a new Byzantine Empire. King Otto, partly from lack of sympathy, but more through fear of the Western Powers, whose ships suddenly appeared at the Piræus, opposed the movement. The Greek volunteers who had gathered at the frontier were ordered to disperse.

The war had so far not fulfilled the expectations of Russia. Not only had Kalafat the Czar's troops been repulsed at Kalafat, despite their greater numbers, but they had also been surprised and beaten at Cetate. The respect which Cetate Russia commanded as a great Power had been engendered largely by her supposed inexhaustible resources. The Czar was therefore forced to maintain the old appearance of strength by recruiting troops throughout his empire and by intrusting the command of all his men to Prince Paskievitch, regarded, despite his great age, as the best general of Russia. Operations were shifted further to the east, partly to still the apprehensions of Russians cross Danube Austria, partly in the hope that more Slavic Christians would join the Russian army. In the middle of March, Paskievitch crossed the Danube not far from the mouth of the Pruth, despite the promises made by the Czar to Prussia and Austria. The Czar's rejection of a second pacific note from Vienna, together with the breach of the promise given to his fellow Powers declare war sovereigns, was followed, on March 28, by a formal declaration of war on the part of France and England.

Without effective resistance on the part of the Turks, General Lueders seized the Dobrudsha and joined General Schilder before the walls of Silistria, while Omar Pasha, in the face of a superior Russian force, was compelled to retire to the fortress of Shumla. These energetic Russian movements spurred the Western Powers to greater activity.

In April, an English army of 20,000 men under Lord Raglan, together with a French force more than twice as large under the command of Marshal St. Allied troops landed Arnaud, distinguished for his deeds in Africa and for his part in Louis Napoleon's coup d'état, landed at Gallipolis. The allies bombarded Odessa on April 22, taking good care, however, not to destroy English property in the city.

The crossing of the Danube by the Russians led Austria and Prussia to form an offensive and defensive alliance, both agreeing to wage war on the Czar Austrian-Prussian remonstrances if he sent his armies across the Balkans or incorporated the Danube principalities. But how little Prussia intended to engage in a struggle with the Czar was indicated by the retirement of Bonin, the Minister of War, and of Bunsen, the Ambassador to London. Even a tentative offer of Schleswig and Holstein made by England could not tempt Prussia to forsake her old confederate. A joint note was sent to St. Petersburg by Austria and Prussia, demanding the withdrawal of the Russian troops from the invaded territory of the Danube. Austria concluded a treaty with the Porte, by the Assault of Silistria terms of which she was to seize the Danube principalities, on the borders of which she had mobilized her troops. Paskievitch's efforts to reduce Silistria proved fruitless. The courageous example of Mussa Pasha and the skill of Grach, a Prussian officer of artillery, were more than a match for the strategy of the Russian commanding general. The hostile attitude of the Austrian troops on the frontier of Wallachia and Moldavia, and the landing of French and English expeditions at Varna, caused Paskievitch, on June 21, Paskievitch withdraws to withdraw his weakened force across the Danube and the Pruth. In the attempt to reduce Silistria the lives of many Russian soldiers had been sacrificed. Paskievitch himself was slightly wounded. Eighteen months after his defeat he died in Warsaw. Schilder, Mussa and Grach, all mortally wounded, had been carried off before him. The losses of the allies were also serious. An ill-considered march of the French from Varna into the Allies at Varna Dobrudsha resulted in the loss of 2,000 men, most of whom succumbed to the insufferable heat. In the camp at Varna cholera wrought terrible havoc.

Upon the sea the allies were no more successful. An English and French fleet, under Sir Charles Napier, proceeded to the Baltic Sea for the purpose of persuading Sweden to join France and England, of reducing the Ineffectual naval operations fortress of Kronstadt, the key to the Russian capital, and of attacking St. Petersburg itself. Sweden, despite the efforts of the Powers, held aloof like Prussia. The walls of Kronstadt defied the ships. Besides the capture of Bomarsund on August 16, nothing was accomplished.

In Varna, a council of war was held to decide upon the course to be pursued against the Russians. Among others, General Stein, or Ferhat Pasha, as he A council of war was called after his conversion to Mohammedanism, proposed the landing of troops in Asia in order to drive the enemy from the Caucasus. But St. Arnaud, who felt that he had not long to live, and, therefore, wished to end his career as gloriously as he could, voted for an attack on Sebastopol, the naval port of the Crimea. He was supported by Lord Raglan, who desired nothing more fervently than the destruction of the Russian fleet. So far no less than 15,000 men had perished in the campaign. The remaining force, composed of 56,000 soldiers, of whom 6,000 were Turks, was Before Sebastopol landed, on September 14, at Eupatoria on the west coast of the peninsula. To the south of Eupatoria the sea forms a bay which receives the waters of the River Tchernaya, flowing past the ruins of Inkermann. Upon the southern side is the fortified city of Sebastopol. On the northern side fortifications had been built to protect the fleet anchored in the bay. Upon the heights overlooking the river Alma, Prince Menzikov, Governor of the Crimea, had stationed his army of 39,000 men with 106 guns. Although the heights overhanging the Alma are more than five miles long, the Russian troops by which they were defended formed a front of but three miles. This left the extreme left of the Russians open to an attack by a ford opposite the village of Almatack. Against Menzikov, Marshal St. Arnaud and Lord Raglan could oppose 63,000 men and 128 guns. The weakness of the undefended left flank of the Russian army was discovered from the French ships. St. Arnaud laid his plans accordingly. On the morning of September 20, the attack was begun. The warships steamed up the river and opened fire on the enemy. Bosquet, in command of a French division and a Turkish contingent, was assigned to attack Menzikov's left. He pushed his way through the village of Almatack and forded the river. His Zouaves nimbly climbed the heights and reached the feebly defended plateau. Menzikov, busily engaged in resisting the advance of the English against his right, at first refused to believe the unwelcome tidings. He endeavored to shift a part of his force from right to left. Meantime the English, under Lord Raglan, were subjected to so fierce a fire from the Russian main position that they Battle of the Alma could make no headway. They lay passive upon the ground waiting for the French under Canrobert and Louis Napoleon to begin the attack in front, and thus divert the attention of Menzikov. Weary of their long delay, Lord Raglan took matters into his own hands. The English infantry rose from the field, advanced upon the Russian main position, and, under a hot fire, stormed the Russian redoubt with dreadful loss. Attacked on the one side by the English and on the other by the French, Menzikov was compelled to beat a retreat.

The battle of the Alma was one of the first modern engagements described by special war correspondents in the field. The news of the victory was despatched to London with a rapidity prophetic of the feats performed by latter-day correspondents. Besides the war correspondents, several artists War artists and correspondents of note followed the armies of the allies. Among the French painters who have perpetuated some of the well-known episodes of the Crimean War were Horace Vernet, who painted a "Battle of Alma," and Paul Alexandre Protais, a pupil of Desmoulins, who first came into note about that time. Another artist who made his early reputation in the war of the Crimea was Adolphe Schreyer.

On the Russian side, Count Lyof Tolstoi served at the front, together with Tolstoi his namesake and fellow writer, Count Alexander Tolstoi. There he gathered impressions for his stories on the siege of Sebastopol, and for his subsequent great novel of the Napoleonic invasion, "War and Peace."

Besides the news of victory, the Crimean War correspondents told of the Cholera sore plight of the English army, of the ravages of cholera, and of the wretchedly organized hospital system. No preparations had been made for a very long campaign. The taking of Sebastopol, it was thought by the English, would present no grave difficulties.

But Sebastopol was better prepared to meet an attack than England knew. True it is that early in the war the city might have been taken by a dash from the land and sea. But the chance was now gone. Three days after the defeat of Alma, Menzikov sank seven vessels of the Russian Black Sea fleet Todleben in the mouth of the harbor. On all sides the city was strongly fortified in accordance with the suggestion of Todleben, an ingenious artillery officer.

Instead of moving directly upon Sebastopol the allies first marched to Balaklava, further to the south, where they would be in constant Allies beaten off communication with the ships and could establish a base of supplies. On October 17, an unsuccessful attack was made on Sebastopol.

At dawn on October 25, the Russians crossed the Tchernaya and stole rapidly on until their vanguard had reached a position from which they could cannonade Canrobert's Hill, the post most distant from the forces of the allies and nearest the village of Kamara. The main Russian army under Liprandi soon came up and began to fire upon Canrobert's Hill and the adjacent works. The English replied with the assistance of a troop of horse Russian success artillery and of a field battery. Two English divisions and two French brigades were sent to the aid of the garrison on the hills. The Russians succeeded in storming Canrobert's Hill and in capturing the next and smaller fortification. Threatened by overwhelming numbers, the troops on the remaining hills withdrew.

Two English cavalry brigades—the Light and the Heavy—commanded by Lord Lucan, had been manœuvring to protect Balaklava. The Light Brigade, under Lord Cardigan, faced the Tchernaya; the Heavy Brigade, under Balaklava Scarlett, was on the Balaklava side of the ridge. A great body of Russian cavalry swept down the slope upon the Heavy Brigade, and for a moment threw it into disorder. But Scarlett's men charged the Russians. The two opposing bodies of cavalry clashed and seemed to melt one within the other. Then the Russian horsemen yielded, and fled over the ridge whence they had first appeared five minutes before.

A disposition on the Russian side to carry off the captured guns induced Lord Raglan to send Lord Lucan an order "to advance rapidly to the front and try to prevent the enemy carrying away the guns." The order was carried by Captain Nolan, who found Lucan between his two brigades, with the Light Brigade beyond Woronzov road. Whose "front" was meant Lucan did not know. Nolan conjectured that "the guns" in question were those which had retired with the retreating Russian cavalry. Already the Russian cavalry had taken protection behind its works toward the Tchernaya, and was supported by The charge of the Light Brigade Liprandi's troops posted along the Woronzov road, and by Russian guns bearing on the valley from the ridge and from Fedioukin heights. Nolan, Lord Lucan reported later, insisted that these very guns must be regained. Although Lord Cardigan of the Light Brigade shared Lucan's misgivings he obeyed the command. With the order, "The Brigade will advance!" the famous charge of the Six Hundred began. Nolan galloped obliquely across the Brigade as it started. He was killed by the first shell fired from a Russian gun. Into the thick of the Russians Cardigan rode with his men. The forlorn exploit has been immortalized by Alfred Tennyson: