Having given the prominent distinct styles,—of which there are, however, many combinations, both of style, ornament, and tooling, originating more nondescripts than we have space to treat upon,—we proceed to the gilding, trusting that what has been pointed out to the attention of the young workman will induce him to neglect no opportunities of becoming acquainted with the works of artists of celebrity, not for the purpose of servile imitation, but to examine their adaptations of ornamental art as a study, to enable him to trace superficial decoration back to its originators. Having acquired this knowledge, he may by his treatment of ornament take rank as an artist.
The examples given will be sufficient for the intellectual workman to conceive many patterns which his taste will suggest, forming an infinite variety of beautiful designs. In all combinations, a rigorous observance of the symmetrical proportions of the tools must be his first care, so that the union of any number of designs present a form agreeable and chaste. It would be superfluous to add more; but from the importance of the subject, on closing the directions for the ornamental department of binding, it may be repeated that there is no greater evidence of the ignorance or carelessness of the workman than an ornament of any kind unevenly or unequally worked. Let the young binder especially bear this in mind: it is a defect which nothing can effectually remedy; instead of an embellishment it is a detriment to the binding, and his reputation as a clever workman is consequently placed in jeopardy.
Preparatory to gilding, the back must be compassed off and carefully marked with a folding-stick and a straight-edge or piece of vellum, wherever it is intended to run a straight line. This serves as a guide when the gold is laid on. For work of the best class, the fillets must be first put in blind, and the tooling done in the same manner. For sides where the design is elaborate, or a degree of perfection in the tooling is desirable, the entire pattern must be first worked in blind, and, after being washed with a dilution of oxalic acid or a thin paste-wash, it must be carefully pencilled in with the glaire-pencil; but this comes more appropriately under the head of
PREPARATIONS FOR GILDING.
To operate successfully, it will be necessary that the workman provide himself with good size, glaire, and oil. The first is prepared by boiling fine vellum slips till a good size is produced, of a consistency that will lie equally on the volume without blotches or ropes, and must be used warm. The glaire is formed of the whites of eggs, beaten well with a frother till it is perfectly clear, and the froth taken off. This liquid will improve by keeping, and should never be used new if it can possibly be avoided. For morocco bindings, the glaire is sometimes diluted with water. The oil adopted by various binders is different. Some use palm-oil for calf, sweet oil for morocco or russia; others prefer hog's lard, or fine mould-candle, for light-coloured calf; but sweet oil is well adapted for almost every kind of leather. Vellum-size is the best preparation for coloured calf. On books thus prepared, the glaire must be applied two or three times, taking care that each coat is quite dry before the next is added, and that it lies perfectly even on the whole surface, free from globules or any substance whatever. Great care is required in preparing coloured calf; for, if there be too much body in the preparation, it will crack on the surface and present a bad appearance. Morocco and roan will not require more than one coat, and, where practicable, only on such parts of the morocco as are to be gilt. The state of the weather must ever determine the number of volumes to be proceeded with at one time, as in the winter double the number may be glaired to what the dryness of a summer's day will admit of, so as to work with safety and produce effect. A good paste-wash before glairing is always advisable, as it prevents the glaire from sinking into the leather.
In preparing glaire from the egg for immediate use, a few drops of oxalic acid added thereunto will be found to be of essential service.
The volumes being thus prepared, the operation of
GILDING THE BACK
Is commenced by oiling slightly, with a small piece of cotton, the whole length of the back. If the book is merely intended to be filleted for the economy of the gold, small strips are cut on the gold-cushion, attached to the heated fillet by rolling it slightly over, and affixed to the volume by passing it firmly on the lines previously marked. But if the back is to be fully ornamented, it will be necessary to cover it entirely with gold-leaf.
The hand-stamps should be disposed on the table before him, so as to be selected with the greatest facility, and in readiness for every purpose for which they may be required.
To lay on the gold, the workman takes a book of the metal, opens the outside leaf, and passes the knife underneath the gold; with this he raises it, carries it steadily on to the cushion, and spreads it perfectly even, by a light breath on the middle of the leaf, taking care also that not the least current of air has access to the room he may be operating in. Afterwards the gold must be cut with the gold-knife to the breadth and length of the places to be covered, by laying the edge upon it and moving the knife slightly backwards and forwards. Then rub upon the back the oil, and apply the gold upon the places to be ornamented with a cotton or tip, rubbed on the forehead or hair to give it a slight humidity and cause the gold to adhere. But if the whole of the back is to be gilt, it will be more economical to entirely cover it by cutting the gold in slips the breadth of the book and applying the back on it; afterwards press it close with the cotton, with which any breaks in the gold must also be covered, by placing small slips where required. The humidity of the hair or forehead will be sufficient to make the gold adhere to the cotton or other instrument with which it may be conveyed to the book. The fillet or roll must then be heated to a degree proper for the substance on which it is to be worked. Calf will require them hotter than morocco and roan, and these warmer than russia and vellum. To ascertain their proper heat, they are applied on a damp sponge, or rubbed with the finger wetted, and by the degree of boiling that the water makes, their fitness is known; but a little exercise and habit will render this easy of judging. To further insure this, the roll or pallet is passed over the cap of the headband; if too hot, the gold will be dull; if too cool, the impression will be bad, from the gold not adhering in every part.
After the gold is laid on, the volume is laid upon the side, with the back elevated, and the workman proceeds to mitre the fillets that run lengthwise of the back, commencing at the line that has been traced across the back, by pressing lightly with the point of the mitred roll and running it carefully till near the line that marks the end of the panel; then lift the fillet and turn it with the finger until the other or reverse mitre, or nick in the fillet, is reached; then place the fillet in the lines already gilt, adjusting it with the left hand until the extreme point of the mitre will just reach the line traced across. After both edges of the back have been done along the joint in this way, the volume is then placed evenly in the finishing-press, and the panels completed by mitreing the fillets that run across the back. The entire operation requires the utmost care, in order to have the lines parallel and the mitres perfectly even and true. No ornament that may be afterwards worked upon the back, beautiful as it may be, can atone for negligence or want of skill in the mitreing and running of the fillets. As a matter of economy, sometimes the back is run up; that is, instead of stopping where the lines or bands intersect, the roll is run up the back from one end to the other, without stopping; and, after wiping the gold off along the joint outside the fillet, it is run across the back on each side of the bands, and head and tail in the same manner. After the back is mitred, the finisher will proceed with the ornamental tools, and work them carefully off. In placing them, great attention should be paid to their occupying precisely the same place in each panel; and, in order to present an agreeable effect, the tools should correspond in detail, and there should be a geometrical fitness governing the selection and arrangement of the tools.
The judicious choice of ornaments for the back is of the utmost importance. For instance, such as represent animals, insects, or flowers, which are only proper for works of natural history, entomology, and botany, should never appear on the backs of works on general literature, as it would be an evidence of bad taste or carelessness.
Every tool should be beautiful in itself, because no accumulation of misshapen tools can make one beautiful ornament. There is no objection to scrolls, leaves, flowers, stops, or any of the usual kind of ornaments; only let them all be in themselves beautiful. It is appropriate to introduce a harp on a book of songs, a stag's head on a book on hunting, a recognised ecclesiastical pattern upon a book of divinity or a prayer-book; a Greek or Roman design upon a classical work, or a Gothic design upon a book on Gothic architecture.
Should it be desired to present on the back simply an ornamental lettering-piece at the head, diverging to a point towards the middle of the book, and the rest of the volume left plain, it will be necessary to impress the tools previous to glairing, and then apply the glaire with a camel's-hair pencil in the indentations the tools have formed. When dry, cover with gold and reimpress the tool in the marks previously made, and letter the title. This proceeding is adopted in every pattern where part of the back is intended to be left dull by being free from glaire.
The title must next engage attention, and the letters placed thereon, either singly or together, with brass type properly fixed in the hand-chase. If with single letters, the tail of the volume must be lowered about an inch, and the workman draw a thread of silk across the gold to direct the heads of the letters. Taking each singly, he places them on the back with the right hand, steadying the letter with the forefinger of the left. If the title is set in the chase, place the volume evenly in the press, and apply the title, guided by the thumb, firmly across. The title in either case must be justified, to produce the best effect, taking care to avoid, if possible, having two lines of the same length; and, where the title can be measured, as in the type it may, the exact centre should be ascertained before applying it heated on the gold. The back may now be considered finished. The gold which has not been impressed by the gilding tools must be well rubbed off with the gold-rag and minutely cleared off with a piece of fine flannel or India-rubber, so as to display the delicate lines of the ornaments as perfectly and clearly as possible. Attention should be paid to this particular; for, let a book be finished in the most tasteful manner possible, unless well cleared off the effect is entirely lost. If in calf, it must now be polished, and the squares and edges of the boards proceeded with.
GILDING THE SQUARES, ETC.
For gilding the edges of the boards, the gold may be taken as for the bands,—on the roll,—and the volume held firmly with the left hand; but, if large, put into the press between boards, so as not to injure the back. Where the ornament of the inside-square is simple, the like proceeding of applying the gold will be proper, resting the board open on an elevation equal to the thickness of the book. But if the square has been left large, with a leather joint, so as to admit of being more elaborately filled up, the gold must be laid on the whole space with the tip and pressed close with the cotton. The gilding is then proceeded with in the same manner as detailed in the directions for the side-ornaments.
GILDING THE SIDES.
The sides, from affording more ample space, are the part of the volume whereon the workman can and is expected to show his taste and skill in gilding. The proceedings are the same as before pointed out where a simple roll is the only ornament round; but where the pattern is extensive and the details minute, it is necessary to have the whole worked blind upon the volume before glairing, and then apply the gold. If one side is done at a time, the book is taken by the leaves with the left hand, the board intended to be covered resting on the thumb, and the gold laid on as for the squares, either over the whole side or on such parts as the pattern indicates. If the volume be small, the gold may be laid on both sides and the leaves of the volume placed in the finishing-press, allowing the boards to rest on its surface. This affords greater facility for placing uniformly and systematically the fillets, rolls, and tools necessary to complete the design on each side. Where the pattern has not been marked, and one side only proceeded with, the roll is run in a straight line, which should be made, previous to covering with gold, on the board by the joint of the back, the volume turned for the head and tail, and laid open upon the board for the fore-edge, to give it the firmness necessary.
Directions for executing the most elaborate designs have been previously given, whereby it will be perceived that it requires but taste, and a just observation of similarity of design and the geometrical proportions of the ornaments, to execute them to any extent. One variation from this rule will destroy the effect of the whole pattern: it will therefore be to the benefit of such as are not conversant fully with the art, to assist themselves with designs drawn on cartridge-paper, which may be marked through on the leather and the pattern executed in gold or blind as required. In all, the gilding will be the same, either to glaire over the whole cover after the design is stamped, or, if the plain part is to be left dull, by glairing the impressions only with a camel's-hair pencil.
GILDING ON SILK AND VELVET.
The proceedings necessary to be adopted for gilding on silk and velvet are, from the delicate nature of these substances, different from those laid down for gilding on leather. The glaire used on the latter would tend to stain, and therefore it is necessary to employ other means for fixing the gold. This is by drying the whites of eggs and reducing them to a powder, which is put into a small bottle and tightly tied over with a piece of fine muslin, by which means it is equally distributed on the space intended to be gilt. Gum-sandarac is now, however, more generally used for this purpose, although some use gum-copal. The powder being applied, the gold is cut in slips and taken on a roll of a circumference equal to the length of the space intended for it to be applied on. The design is then firmly impressed, and the superfluous gold brushed off with a soft brush or clean piece of cotton, and the other side alike executed. In lettering, or fixing single tools on the back, the same proceedings must be adopted, by taking the gold thereon and applying it to the back or side of the volume. Where the design is large, or elaborate work is required, it will be better executed in the following manner:—The design must be drawn on paper, and worked through on silk, after which the impression must be carefully glaired with a camel's-hair pencil; when dry, rub the parts intended for the gold with the finger passed through the hair or with a clean rag slightly oiled, and, after laying on the gold as directed for other styles, reimpress the tools, and whip off the superfluous gold with a clean flannel.
As there is no moisture in silk, the workman must not lay on at one time so much as he does on calf and other substances.
ILLUMINATED BINDING.
This style, an invention of the French, was for some time kept by them with the greatest secrecy. It is a binding of the utmost magnificence, uniting the varied beauties of the arabesque and gilt ornament, blended with the illuminated decorations seen on early MSS. before the invention of printing. When executed in the best manner, nothing can exceed the beauty of the whole coup-d'œil, rivalling, as it does, in splendour, the most elaborately-finished design of the painter. The time required to be devoted, on its first introduction, to a single specimen, appeared likely to confine this sort of ornament to the finest treasures of literature, and even to them in a limited degree. The improvements, however, in machinery and the rapid advance of the arts have, in a few years, brought this style into very general use for albums and other works where embellished covers are adopted; and even on the cheap roan bindings used for Bibles, Prayers, &c. it may be seen; though in effecting this cheapness it must be premised that a less durable method is adopted.
To execute the more elaborate designs, practice and a taste for the arts will here alone serve the workman; without these requisites it would be futile to make the attempt. But, as the proceedings require to be executed with the utmost care, we shall enter fully into such as are new, and, from their importance, at the risk of being considered prolix, again touch on those that may have been before treated of.
The description of one side will serve the purpose of making the proceedings fully understood. Whether the material be of morocco or white vellum, it must be washed, if required, perfectly clean, and left to dry. The first operation will be—if it be for stamp-work—to place the side on the bed of the stamping-press and boldly impress the design thereon. The most elegant, and capable of the greatest display of colour, are subjects of botany and natural history. The next step will be to glaire with a camel's-hair pencil such parts of the impression as it is intended shall be afterwards covered with gold. This done, the delicate operation of colouring may be proceeded with. In London and Paris this is executed by professed artists in no way conversant with book-binding. The colours to be used must be such as do not at all, or very slightly, fade on exposure to the air or sun, such as carmine, ultramarine, indigo, burnt sienna, gamboge, and sap-green. These must be prepared, with fine gum, in the same manner as for painting, and be lightly and delicately laid on such parts of the design as it is intended the colour should occupy, taking care that the ground-colour or leather is entirely hid. Let every thing be true to nature, each bird, plant, and flower its proper colour, and a general harmony prevail throughout. When finished, let the whole perfectly dry, and then, in the manner directed, lay gold on such parts as it is intended, in the reimpression of the plate, should be further embellished. Heat the plate, place the side again under it, and give it a firm and sharp impression. Rub off the superfluous gold, and the whole of the delicate lines of the ornament will be found beautifully gilt, the colours firmly fixed by the heat of the plate, and the rough edges of the colour completely effaced by the reimpression of the original design.
In executing the less expensive and more simple designs, the plate is impressed in gold on the side, and the parts left ungilt on the leather; afterwards coloured according to the taste of the workman.
For the best class of work, after the design is impressed, either by hand or the press, pieces are cut out of variously-coloured morocco, pared thin, and neatly pasted on the side, the design, when worked, entirely concealing the edges of the morocco. This is termed inlaid work.
BLIND TOOLING.
This is an ornamental operation, applied either before or after the book has been gilt and polished, and, if judiciously intermingled with the gold, will not fail to present a good effect. It is a style that has been much used of late years, and is executed in the same way and with the same tools as for gilding, but without any gold applied on the places thus ornamented. The rolls, pallets, and smaller tools, are applied by the hand, and the large plates with the press, with the same precautions as indicated in the previous section. If the pattern consists of straight lines, and the workman possesses a good eye, the best manner of executing it is by making use of a pallet, placing it firmly on the book, and sliding it to the opposite point. It remains, therefore, to consider such matters as more immediately apply to this style of decoration.
The tools for blind tooling should not be so warm as for gilding, and particularly for morocco. If it is wished to be left dull,—that is, free from glaire,—the particles attaching themselves over the edge of the gold ornaments must be removed with the end of the finger, wrapped over with a piece of fine cloth, and wetted. This will soon wash it clean, and when dry the blind ornaments may be proceeded with.
Graining may be properly considered as a blind ornament. This is where, by the means of wooden or metal plates, the sides of a book are marked with lines crossed over each other, so as to form innumerable small squares in imitation of russia, or in imitation of the grain of morocco, scales of fish, and other substances. The operation is performed by placing the volume between the two plates even by the groove of the back, in the standing-press, and pressing it tightly down, and so even that the plate will be impressed equally over the whole surface. Nothing will look worse than a bold impression in one place and a slight one in another; and therefore it becomes of importance to see that it is evenly pressed, as a second application of some kind of plates will never be found affixed to the same places.
MODERNIZED MONASTIC OR ANTIQUE.
This style, whether done by the hand or the press, is one that requires care and patience on the part of the workman, so as to bring up the tools black, without burning or otherwise injuring the leather. We have spent much time in experiments, so as to arrive at the most certain and perfect mode of producing the desired result. The style emanated from Mr. Hayday's bindery; and a volume executed in this style for a connoisseur in this city, with tooling of a brilliant black, fell into our hands some years since, and we at once set about attempting to produce the same effects. Our efforts were confined to hand-tooling for some time; and, although inferior in effect, they were generally well received; but we were far from being satisfied. We tried every substance that could be thought of, made the leather and tools hot and dry, or wet and cold, as reason seemed to point to one or the other as the proper method. We will now communicate the results of our labours:—In the first place, the material is of the greatest importance; and the finest effects cannot be produced except upon English calf or morocco. American calf is entirely out of the question for the purpose, as the morocco is too hard on the surface, and there is not sufficient colour in the body for the tools to draw and affix it by heat to the surface; but some kinds are better adapted for the purpose than others. To test this, apply the tip of the tongue to the leather, and if the dampness lies on the surface, without sinking in, reject it; but if the dampness strikes instantly into the leather,—the quicker the better,—the workman may proceed with some hopes of success. After the volume is covered and ready for finishing, wash it evenly over with clean water; and, as soon as the water ceases to lie upon the surface, apply the tool moderately heated; this will bring up the dark colour. Afterwards go over it again with the tool, so as to make the impressions clear and bright. There are, however, some colours, as well as particular manufactures, that will not come up black; and we were long satisfied that some colouring-matter was employed. We wrote to a friend in London, who sent us the material and the method of its use. The material was common printers' ink. His communication we now make public. "In the first place, the leather should be quite damp, and the tools used should be as hot as possible without the printers' ink. Then again impressed with the printers' ink upon the tools. We put the larger tools in again without ink. When the ink is used upon the tools, the leather should be rather damp, and the tools not very hot. When the pattern is worked in the manner described, it should be left until dry, and then brushed with a brush, not very stiff, which will give a brilliant gloss to the tooling." When using printers' ink, be careful not to get too much on the tools.
Let the young workman but follow the directions given, and, with a little patience and reflection, he will be able to do work of the character under consideration, fully equal to the efforts of the best workman, provided that the tools be worked true and even.
POLISHING.
The details of this operation, which is performed immediately after the gold ornaments have been worked, have been reserved in order that the whole of the ornamental department might be kept together. Morocco, roan, silk, and velvet, and the blind ornaments on any substance, must never be submitted to the action of the polisher. A smart rubbing with a piece of rough calf will be sufficient for the two former, and the velvet or silk will merely require cleaning with any smooth substance or with India-rubber.
There are two polishers,—one for the back and bands, and another for the sides. The oil applied on the cover previous to laying on the gold will be sufficient to make the polisher glide easily over the surface. The polisher must be heated, and well cleaned on a board, and passed quickly and evenly on the back, sides, or joints, as the case may be, taking especial care that it is not too hot, as the glaire would thereby be turned white and the work damaged in appearance, nor so cold as to give a bad polish.
The book, as gilt, must be first polished on the back, by taking it with the left hand, resting it on the table, and polished with the right hand by gliding backwards and forwards the smooth part of the polisher on the whole extent of the back. This not only polishes the surface, but smooths down the indentations formed upon the leather by the gilding-tools, bringing up the gilding to the surface. The polisher must be passed on such places only as it is wished to make brilliant, and great care taken not to touch the places intended to be left dull.
The sides are similarly polished, by laying the volume on the table, covered with baize, and passing the large iron quickly over, first from the fore-edge towards the groove, and then, by turning the volume in a contrary way, from the tail to the head.
If the joint requires polishing, the book is laid before the workman, the tail towards him, and the iron applied on the side next the groove, polishing the whole length of the board; then, turning round the volume, and bringing the fore-edge towards him, he polishes the side on the fore-edge, and, turning again, completes the whole by polishing the parts at the head and tail.
In addition to polishing, it is desirable to give to the sides the greatest possible smoothness by pressing them between polished tins or horns. These are placed on each side of the book even by the groove, put between pressing-boards, and screwed tightly in the press, and left for some time.
COLOURING.
Calf-skins of uniform tints, and also sprinkled, can now be obtained of English manufacturers; yet in many localities they are difficult to obtain. We therefore make known the chemical substances and ingredients required to execute them in the best manner. Marbling is a process that must be executed by the binder upon the cover, and, with many other revival styles, is again coming into vogue. The recipes given for the superior marbles and designs will, it is presumed, present this branch of the art on a higher footing, in a general point of view, than is usually accorded to it; and it is confidently asserted that not one of them will prove a failure, if attention to the directions be only given. Nothing has been omitted in the description of the substances best for use, the mode of preparing them, and the proceedings to be adopted, that can tend to give to the covers all the elegance and splendour of which they are susceptible. By the aid of these, assisted by some taste, the workman may vary the designs almost to infinity; but it must be admitted that, unless he is devoted to his art, no mere directions or casual advantages will enable him to succeed in the more complicated or delicate operations, while, with an ardour for it, all difficulties will be easily overcome.
CHEMICAL PREPARATIONS.
Under this head is included aqua regia, or killed spirits, nitric acid, marbling-water, and glaire prepared for marbling.
AQUA REGIA,
So called from its power to dissolve gold, is a mixture of nitic acid (aquafortis) and muriatic acid, (spirits of salts,) deprived of its burning qualities by block-tin, which it dissolves. It is called by the chemist acid nitro-muriatic: the muriatic also contains a portion of alkali, which gives to red a vinous tint, and for which colour it is principally used.
The two substances should be of the purest quality, of a concentration of thirty-three degrees for the nitric acid and of twenty degrees for the muriatic. They must be mixed with the greatest precaution. Having provided a clear glass bottle, the neck rather long, capable of holding twice the quantity to be prepared, place it upon a bed of sand, the opening at top, and pour in one part of pure nitric acid and three of muriatic. Let the first vapours dispel, and then cover the orifice with a small phial, which must not confine the vapour too closely, as the bottle would be liable to burst, but which retains as much as possible without risk. Of block-tin, an eighth part of the weight of the acid must then be dropped into the bottle, in small pieces, a little at a time, covering the orifice with the phial. The acid will immediately attack the tin and dissolve it, when a second portion must be put in with the same precaution, and so on till the whole is dissolved. Malacca tin is the best for use, and if pure there will be no sediment; but, as it cannot always be obtained, a black sediment will be left. The vapour having ceased, the acid must be poured into bottles and secured with glass stoppers, to preserve it. When used, a part is taken and mixed with one quarter of its weight of distilled water.
It is usual with some workmen to perform this operation in a common drinking-glass; but, as the vapour is thereby all dispersed, the composition loses a considerable portion of its best quality, for it will be observed, if performed in a bottle as above directed, that the vapour assumes a red tint, which does not escape if the neck of the bottle be of sufficient length.
ANOTHER.
Some binders adopt the following method; but, as it is not capable of producing an equal beauty and clearness of colour with the one above given, it will not be advisable to use. The former, too, will be equally effective to an indefinite period, while this will not preserve more than two or three months.
Put in a brown freestone pot two ounces of powdered sal-ammoniac, six ounces of fine Malacca tin, in strips or drops, twelve ounces of distilled water, and, last, a pound of nitric acid, of thirty-three degrees. Leave the whole till the tin is dissolved, and then pour off and bottle as above directed.
VITRIOL-WATER.
Vitriol, as sold in the pure state, will not be proper to use in marbling or sprinkling, as it would corrode and destroy the leather. It must be weakened at least in proportion of one ounce of vitriol to three of water.
MARBLING-WATER.
It is usual with many to use the water pure; but a few drops of potash liquid mixed with it will be found to produce better effect, the marble being rendered more distinct.
GLAIRE.
Put spirits of wine in a proportion of two drops to the whites of twelve eggs, and beat the whole well together till perfectly clear.
PREPARATIONS OF THE COLOURS.
The preparations used by different binders vary much, as will be seen by the recipes given for the same colours, which we judge necessary to put on record, that nothing connected with the subject should be omitted, premising that each colour may be depended upon for producing the most satisfactory results. It may be proper also to observe that the whole of the woods and other ingredients used should be previously powdered or reduced to small pieces, the colours being thereby much better extracted.
BLACK.
1. Dissolve half a pound of green copperas in two quarts of water. The oxide contained in the sulphate of iron will combine with the tanning of the leather, and produce a good black.
2. Boil in a cast-iron pot a quart of vinegar, with a quantity of rusty nails, or steel-filings, till reduced one-third, taking off the scum as it rises to the top. This liquid improves by age. To keep up the quantity, boil with more vinegar.
3. A cheaper liquid may be produced by boiling two pints of beer and two pints of water with two pounds of old iron and a pint of vinegar, scumming as before, and bottling for use.
BROWN.
1. Half a pound of good Dantzic or American potash dissolved in one quart of rain-water, and preserved in a bottle well corked.
2. Salts or oil of tartar, in the same proportions as above.
3. A beautiful brown may be procured from the green shells of walnuts. To prepare this, a quantity of the green shells, when the nuts are gathered, must be pounded in a mortar to extract the juice, and then put into a vessel capable of holding a sufficient quantity of water. The water being put in, the whole should be frequently stirred, and left to soak, with the vessel covered. Afterwards the liquid must be passed through a sieve, the juice well expressed, and bottled, with some common salt, for use. This liquid, after fermentation, will produce the best effects, for the uniform tints, as it tends to soften the leather, and will not corrode.
BLUE.
1. It is usual with many binders to use Scott's Liquid Blue, but it is necessary to know the preparation of the colour. Perhaps the best and most simple one known is one given by Poerner, which is as follows:—In four ounces of sulphuric acid, of 66 degrees, mix gradually one ounce of finely-powdered indigo, so as to form a sort of pulp. Place the vessel in another containing boiling water, for some hours, and then leave it to cool. Afterwards put to it a small portion of good potash, dry and finely powdered, stirring the whole well, and letting it rest for twenty-four hours, when bottled, and use as required. This colour will appear nearly black, but may be made to any shade by adding water to it. If any portion remain after being diluted, it must be put into a separate bottle, as if mixed with the first preparation the whole would be deteriorated.
2. A readier blue may be prepared by mixing one ounce of powdered indigo with two ounces of oil of vitriol, and letting it stand for twenty-four hours, and then adding twelve ounces of pure water.
PURPLE.
Boil half a pint of archill or logwood with vinegar and water, of each half a pint.
LILAC.
Same as for the purple, with the addition of about two table-spoonsful of potash.
VIOLET.
Half a pound of logwood chips and one ounce of Brazil dust, boiled over a good fire in four pints of water till reduced one-half, and left to clear. Then throw in one ounce of powdered alum and two grains of cream of tartar, and again boil till dissolved. This liquid must be used warm.
FAWN.
In two pints of water boil one ounce of tan, and a like portion of nutgall, till reduced to a pint.
YELLOW.
1. To one ounce of good caked saffron, turmeric, or French berries, add a portion of spirits of wine or aqua regia, and leave the mixture to macerate. This liquid is used cold, and may be varied to any shade by adding water when required.
2. In two pints of water put eight ounces of French berries, and boil till reduced one-half. Then pass it through a sieve or fine cotton, and add a small quantity of powdered alum, and again boil, using it warm.
ORANGE.
In a pint and a half of potash liquid, boil a quarter of a pound of fustic chips till reduced one-half; then put in an ounce of good annatto, well beaten, and, after boiling, a small portion of alum, and use warm.
GREEN.
1. Liquid blue and yellow mixed will best suit for general purposes.
2. Dissolve in a bottle one ounce of verdigris in an ounce of white wine vinegar, and place the whole before a fire for four or five days, frequently shaking the bottle.
RED.
There are three sorts of red,—viz.: common, fine, and scarlet.
Common.—1. In a tinned kettle boil half a pound of Brazil wood, eight grains of nutgalls, both powdered, and three pints of water, till the whole is reduced one-third. Then add powdered alum and sal-ammoniac, of each one ounce, and when dissolved strain through a sieve. This liquid must always be used warm.
2. Boil a quarter of a pound of Brazil dust, two ounces of powdered cochineal, and a little alum, in two pints of the best vinegar, till a bright red is produced. Use warm.
Fine.—1. In three pints of water boil half a pound of Brazil dust and half an ounce of powdered nutgalls. Pass the whole through a fine cotton, and replace the liquid on the fire, adding one ounce of powdered alum and half an ounce of sal-ammoniac. Give the whole another boil, and then add a portion of aqua regia, according to the shade desired, and use warm.
2. A quicker and cheaper proceeding is by putting in a cup a portion of Brazil wood, and adding to it the aqua regia, letting it stand for a quarter of an hour to extract the colour.
Scarlet.—To one ounce of white nutgalls and one ounce of cochineal, both finely powdered, add two pints of boiling water. After boiling some time, add half an ounce of aqua regia, and use warm.
MARBLING.
Before proceeding to a description of the marbles, and other designs on the covers coming under the general head of marbling, it will be proper to give a few directions relative to some important matters required in the way of preparation. As the success of many of the designs depends upon the quickness with which they are executed, it will be important that the colours, sponges, brushes, &c. are previously disposed in the best order, so as to be of the readiest access. Attention should be paid to the probable quantity that may be required of each colour, as many of them will not be available for use another time.
The books should all be previously washed with paste and water to which has been added a little pearlash liquid, and left to dry. After this they must be glaired equally over, and when dry placed upon the marbling-rods, the sides of the books extending over and the leaves hanging between. The rods must be placed on an elevation at the top, so as to allow the water to run gradually towards the bottom of the books; and, if the backs are required to be left plain, another rod, or piece of board, grooved to the shape of the back, placed on them. To avoid the scum arising from the beating of the brushes over the colours, it is better to rub the ends of the bristles on the palm of the hand, on which a little oil has been spread. These preliminaries being settled, the operation of marbling commences, for which we shall now give directions.
COMMON MARBLE.
The book being placed on the rods, throw on the water prepared for marbling in large drops, with a coarse brush, or bunch of quills, till the drops unite. Then, with a brush charged with the black liquid and beaten on the press-pin as directed for sprinkling the edges, a number of fine streaks are produced by throwing the colour equally over the cover. Afterwards the brown liquid must be similarly thrown over. When the veins are well struck into the leather, the water must be sponged off and the book placed to dry.
If the volume has been previously coloured with any of the preparations before described, and it is wished to produce a marble thereon, the brown must be thrown on first, and then the black; as without this precaution the marble would not strike, because of the acid which forms part of the colours. This observation being applicable to all the other designs, it will not be necessary again to repeat it.
ANOTHER.
Throw on the vinegar-black, then the brown, and lastly a sprinkle of vitriol-water.
PURPLE MARBLE.
Colour the cover two or three times with hot purple liquid, and, when dry, glaire. Then throw on water, and sprinkle with strong vitriol-water, which will form red veins.
STONE MARBLE.
After throwing on the water, sprinkle boldly with the black liquid; then, with a sponge charged with strong brown, drop the colour on the back in three or four places, so that it may run down each side in a broad stream, and afterwards operate with vitriol-water on the parts the brown has not touched.
GREEN AGATE.
Sprinkle black, in nine times its quantity of water, in large drops over the whole surface of the cover, and when the drops unite apply on the back at regular distances the green liquid, so that it may flow on the boards and unite with the black.
BLUE AGATE.
Proceed as above, only substituting blue in place of the green, weakened with water according to the shade required.
FAIR AGATE.
Commence by sprinkling black in small drops at a good distance from each other; afterwards sprinkle equally over large drops of weak potash.
AGATINE.
Proceed as for the green agate, and then sprinkle scarlet all over the cover; finally, throw on blue in small drops, weakened in four times the quantity of water.
LEVANT MARBLE.
After the water, throw on the back-brown in broad streaks as directed for the stone, and then in like manner the aqua regia. This will be found to imitate closely the Levant marble.
PORPHYRY VEIN.
Throw on large drops of black diluted in double the quantity of water. When the colour has struck well into the leather, sprinkle in the same manner brown mixed equally with water. Then apply a sprinkle of scarlet, and afterwards large spots of yellow, the liquid nearly boiling. While these colours are uniting, throw on weak blue, and then aqua regia, which, flowing together down the sides of the book, will form the vein distinctly.
RED PORPHYRY.
Sprinkle with black in eight times the quantity of water, very equal and in small spots. Let it dry, rub, and glaire. Then give two or three sprinkles of fine red, and one of scarlet, and again leave to dry. Finally, sprinkle scarlet in small spots as equally as possible.
GREEN PORPHYRY.
For this design the cover must be finely sprinkled over three separate times, leaving the colour to search and dry between each. The green must be brought to the shade required by mixing with water. To form a more elegant vein, sprinkle first with weak black, and afterwards with green, and when dry with fine red.
PORPHYRY.
This marble, imitating the eye of the partridge, is executed by throwing on black in eight times its volume of water, in small drops, but so close as to just run into each other. When the black begins to flow, sprinkle over brown mixed equally with water. Let it dry, wash the whole with a sponge, and before quite dry again give it two or three coats of fine red. After being dry and well rubbed, sprinkle equally over the surface large drops of aqua regia.
ANOTHER.
Colour the cover with red, yellow, blue, or green, and, when dry, with black diluted as above; let this also dry, and then sprinkle over large or small drops of aqua regia. The eye of the partridge is properly formed with blue sprinkled upon the weakened black, and, when dry, with the killed spirit or aqua regia.
ROCK.
Throw on large drops of black prepared as for the porphyry, and, when half dry, weakened potash in the same manner. When dry again, sprinkle on equally small spots of scarlet, and lastly aqua regia.
GRANITE.
Mix black in about fifty times its quantity of water, and sprinkle equally over very fine, repeating it as it dries five or six times. Then, in like manner, sprinkle over with brown, and, after rubbing well, glaire lightly. Finally, sprinkle finely over with aqua regia.
TREE-MARBLES.
These marbles, which were first executed in Germany, from whence they passed into England, are formed by bending the boards in the middle, so that the water and colours flow from the back and fore-edge to the centre, in the form of branches of trees. Those who have never seen the tree-marbles of Mr. Clarke, of London, can form but little idea of the beauty of which this style is susceptible. The name is also given to such as are made to imitate the grain of the wood.
WALNUT.
Formed by sprinkling black and brown only, as for the common marble.
CEDAR.
After sprinkling as for the walnut, and before perfectly dry, apply lightly a sponge presenting large holes dipped in orange upon various places on the cover, so as to form a description of clouds. Afterwards apply the fine red, with a similar sponge, nearly upon the same places, and when dry give the whole two or three coats of yellow, taking care that each penetrates evenly into the leather.
MAHOGANY.
The proceedings are nearly the same as for the walnut, the difference being merely in sprinkling the black more boldly, and, when perfectly dry, giving two or three uniform coats of red.
BOX.
In order to imitate the veins contained in box, the boards must be bent in five or six different places and in divers ways. After placing the book between the rods, throw on the water in small drops, and proceed as for the walnut. After being perfectly dry, throw water again in large drops, and sprinkle on small spots of blue, diluted equally with water; and, when again dry and rubbed well, apply the scarlet with a sponge as directed for the cedar. Finally, when dry, give two or three coats of orange, and the design is complete.
WAINSCOT.
Colour with strong brown, glaire, and place between the rods, with the boards flat. Throw on weak black in large spots, then brown in like manner, and, lastly, sprinkle boldly with vitriol-water.
VARIEGATED.
Marble as for the walnut, and then put on each board a circle, oval, or other figure, and apply weak black on the outer parts. When dry, give it a good coat of red, and, after throwing on spots of scarlet, take off the figures, and wash well the parts where the latter colour has been used. Finally, give the oval two coats of yellow, or other colour, with a camel's-hair brush.
MARBLING ON PAPER.
The sides of a half-bound book, which will be covered with paper, may be marbled to correspond with the effect produced on the leather by the action of the black and brown at the same time. This is performed by pasting firm white paper on the sides, and colouring with a mixture of four ounces of nut-galls and a small portion of powdered sal-ammoniac boiled well together, which will take the black and brown nearly equal to leather.
SPRINKLES.
This is another ornament on the covers of books, capable of being much varied. A few of the most general use are given, premising that any of the colours arranged as for the marbles above, or sprinkled on the uniform colours, will be productive of a beautiful effect. The books must be paste-washed over, but not glaired.
NUTMEG.
Sprinkle very finely with black and then with brown. If wished to produce a finer effect, give a sprinkle of vitriol-water.
RING.
Put about a teaspoonful of vitriol to a cup of the black, and sprinkle coarsely over. If the ring is not sufficiently strong, add more vitriol.
TORTOISE-SHELL.
Wash the cover with yellow, and sprinkle very boldly with black. When dry, spot with a sponge, as before directed, with blue, red, and black, each colour being left to dry before the next is applied.
In concluding the description of the marbles and sprinkles, it may be remarked that, with a little taste, the workman might vary the designs to upwards of one hundred different patterns; also that each colour should be allowed to properly strike into the leather before another is used. Panes, or blank spaces, are formed by placing squares, &c. of pasteboard on the sides, which prevents the colours touching the leather when sprinkling. After the design is completed, the covers should be well rubbed with a woollen cloth or the ball of the hand, to remove the whole of the refuse of the colour, which will be found to corrode on the surface of the leather.
UNIFORM COLOURS.
Before proceeding to execute any of the colours, the books must be well and evenly paste-washed, and left till perfectly dry. It will also be necessary to observe that the black will become darker in all the subsequent operations of colouring, glairing, and polishing, so that attention must be paid not to use this liquid too strong.
LIGHT BROWN.
Wash the cover with vitriol-water till perfectly uniform in colour, and then with brown to the shade desired.
ANOTHER.
Mix a small quantity of annatto with the potash liquid, and use hot. This will produce a beautiful tint.
DARK BROWN.
Colour with weak black till a slate-shade is produced, and then apply the brown three or four times, as taste may dictate.
Others might be added, but the proceedings are the same, varying only the quantity of colour according to the shade. The nut-brown liquid will produce beautiful tints.
CORINTHIAN GRAPE.
The proceedings are the same as for the last colour, adding two or three coats of fine red.
COMMON GRAPE.
Proceed as for the last, omitting the brown after the black.
BLUE.
After giving four or five coats of the chemical blue diluted with water, wash lightly with weakened aqua regia, which will take off the green reflection produced by the yellow tint of the leather.
GREEN.
Give three or four coats of the green liquid, extended in water according to the shade required. Any of the other colours noticed in the preparations may be thus executed.
OLIVE.
After giving a slate-colour, apply yellow, boiled with a small portion of blue, on the cover, rubbing it equally in while hot, to insure uniformity.
PEARL GRAY.
This colour must be executed carefully, so as to be perfectly uniform and without stains. Colour over with exceedingly weak black liquid, till a pale gray is produced. The weaker it is, the better will the workman succeed. Then pass over a light coat of fine red mixed in a large portion of water, so as to give a light red reflection scarcely distinguishable.
SLATE.
Use the black liquid a little stronger than for the last, and omit the red.
BLACK.
For common purposes, the black may be formed in the way adopted for other colours; but, in many instances, it is necessary to produce a colour having the appearance of japan, and which will require more labour and attention.
Wash the book over with brown till a dark shade is formed; then, with a piece of woollen cloth, apply the black liquid mixed with japan, which will produce a beautiful black. This colour should have a good coat of vellum-size before glairing. Or it may be better to finish off with the varnish given in another part of the work.
Nutgalls, copperas, and gum-arabic, are used by many, and will be found to produce a good and bright colour.
GOLD MARBLES, LANDSCAPES, ETC.
These designs, if properly executed, are the most beautiful that can be imagined. The labour and care, however, requisite, must ever confine them to superior bindings, for which a high price is given, to indemnify the workman for the time required to produce the proper effect. The imitation of the gold marbles is not an easy task; but a knowledge of the art of painting, and a clever management of the brush, will enable the workman to imitate the figure of the marble so true to nature as to be scarcely distinguishable.
GOLD MARBLE.
This marble, which will not require the ability to execute as those following it, is the invention of M. Berthé, senior, bookbinder of Paris, and may be executed on any kind of uniform substance. Take a piece of cloth, exceeding the size of the volume, and fold it equally; lay it, thus folded, evenly upon a board, and then open the other half, and cover the board; spread, upon the half towards the left, gold leaf to the size of the cover, allowing such portion as the roll intended to be worked on it may take, which will be a saving of gold; then refold the cloth on the gold, and press the hand above, without moving the cloth, so as to divide the gold into a number of small pieces. The gold being thus prepared, moisten the side of the volume with glaire mixed with water in equal proportion, and place it on the cloth, pressing above firmly with the hand. Care being taken not to disarrange it, turn over the volume, cloth, and board, and take the latter off, replacing it with a sheet of paper, and rubbing smartly above, so as to attach the whole of the gold to the cover. After this the cloth must be removed, and the gold will be found equally fixed; to further insure which lay on a sheet of paper, and rub well with the palm of the hand.
To remove any gold that may appear on the part intended for the roll in gilding, wet the end of the thumb, form a sort of square with the fore-finger on the edge of the board to the size of the roll, and rub the surface of the cover, which will clear it with facility before the glaire is dry.
LAPIS-LAZULI.
This marble is of clear blue, veined with gold, presenting an appearance of the utmost splendour. It is executed as follows:—
Place the volume between rods as for marbling, and with a sponge full of large holes, dipped in chemical blue mixed in six times its volume of water, make light spots, similar to clouds, at irregular distances; then put in a quarter part more blue, and make new clouds or spots a little darker. Repeat this operation six or seven times, each time adding more blue. All these coats will form stains in proper gradation, as in the natural marble; and to operate more properly, it would be better to have a model, either of the marble itself, or skilfully painted.
The veins of gold, which must not be laid on till the book is gilt, and just previous to polishing, are formed with gold in shell. The substance used to make it take and hold firmly on the cover of the book is prepared with white of egg and spirits of wine in equal proportion, and two parts of water, beating all well and leaving it to clear; then wet a small portion of gold-powder with the liquid, mixing it with the finger, and use it with a small camel's-hair pencil. Pass it on in different places, so as to imitate the model, according to the taste of the workman; when done, let it perfectly dry, and polish with the polisher scarcely warm.
It will be perceived that by the use of other colours, or two or three together, many beautiful designs may be in like manner executed.
LANDSCAPES.
Many beautiful subjects may be formed on the sides of books by the workman skilled in painting; and, although coming more properly under the art of painting, and being objectionable on account of producing a mingling of the arts, so frequently exhibited upon volumes where the art of the bookbinder is superseded by that of the painter and jeweller, the young workman should understand at least the process by which they are produced. The volume is prepared by being pastewashed, so as to present a uniform fawn colour, the designs slightly traced, and afterwards coloured according to the pattern, the colours being mixed to the proper shade with water. The shades must be tried on pieces of refuse leather, as, being spirit-colours, when once laid on, no art can soften them down if too strong; and a peculiar lightness of touch will be necessary to produce effect. Portraits, &c. may also be executed in this manner, and many superb designs have at times been executed by the best binders of England and France. M. Didot, bookseller of Paris, presented a copy of the "Henriade," published by himself, to Louis XVIII., most elegantly ornamented in this style. It was executed by M. Lunier Bellier, bookbinder of Tours, and exhibited on one side a miniature portrait of Henry IV., and on the other a similar one of Louis XVIII., both perfect likenesses. The greatest difficulty consisted in the portraits, which were first imprinted on paper, very moist, and immediately applied to the cover, on which they were impressed with a flat roller. When perfectly dry, they were coloured with all the art of which the binder was capable, and the other ornamental paintings executed by hand. This proceeding requires great care in the execution, and will be applicable to any design where the binding will justify the expense.
TRANSFERRED LANDSCAPES.
The art of transferring, long practised in the ornamenting of fancy articles, was judged equally practicable for forming a superior embellishment for the sides of books. But the varnish necessary to be employed in the operation rendered the invention of no utility, from the action of the heated polisher turning it white or causing it to shell off. After several trials, this difficulty is believed to be overcome, by the employment of a very simple and common article in the office of the bookbinder,—viz.: new glaire, well beaten up. The proceeding is as follows:—Cut the print, intended to be transferred, close to the design on all sides. Let it steep in the glaire till it is well saturated with it. During this time glaire the book twice, letting it dry on each application. Take out the print, place it exactly in the centre of the side-cover, and, laying a piece of paper above, rub it sharply on the book, so that it may adhere very closely. Remove the upper paper, and with the finger rub off the paper gently until the printed design begins to appear, wetting the finger in glaire should the paper get too dry. The utmost attention will now be necessary, for the least carelessness in removing the paper that still remains may entirely destroy the design, and the whole of the previous labour be lost. The paper must be gently removed, piece by piece, till the design only appears on the leather while damp. When dry, a white appearance will be presented, arising from the small particles of paper adhering to the ink; but these will be sufficiently hid on glairing the side previous to finishing. The extent and variety to which, at a small expense, these designs may be carried, with the finish and beauty given to the sides of books, renders the subject worthy of the attention of the ornamental workman particularly; but he must possess perseverance and carefulness in an eminent degree, to carry it to perfection. After the gilding or other ornament is executed, the side must be finished off in the usual manner. A slight coat of the varnish described in a subsequent part of the work will, in this case, give a superior finish.
The following directions, and that of Mr. Buchanan's, are taken from the circulars of the Finishers' Friendly Association of London:—
"Pictures on Calf.—We have heard of a process for transferring prints from the paper on which they had been printed to the sides of books bound in calf; and in these days, when novelty is so much sought after, it might be worth some Friendly's while to test its efficacy. The side must be washed clean, and, while damp, the print is laid thereon, when, after remaining some time in the arming-press, it is said that a copy of the engraving will be found on the calf.
"In sending one of these executed in colours by him twenty years ago, a Friendly corrects an error we committed, by terming prints pictures, and writes, 'In preparing the calf, it is simply washed with thin paste-water; when dry, a coat or two of weak salts of tartar. When perfectly dry, you may proceed with any subject; a very weak brown being generally used for its outline. For all colours, I use two cups of different strengths, with quill-pens and brushes to each. The green is composed of Scott's liquid blue and French berries. These are bruised and simmered from half a pint to a quartern, then caused to boil, and, while in that state, a pinch of burnt alum should be added to set the colour. The slate is weak copperas; red is obtained from Brazil dust and vinegar, or Brazil chips boiled, and solution of tin added. The books had generally double bands—the lettering-pieces stained chocolate, and the spaces between bands blacked, or the colours "moused," morocco being too bright for the stained calf. An octagon or square was coloured brown, slate, or sprinkled, and in the centre a light ground. Was the subject to my fancy, botanical works with a group of plants on the sides, when polished and pressed in japanned tins, had the neatest appearance. Landscapes, animals, insects, shells, &c. are all permanently fixed on the calf by the above-named colours.' He concludes by hoping 'the instructions are sufficiently plain to induce some aspiring F. F.'s to practise this almost forgotten branch of the art of finishing.'
ORNAMENTAL BLACK LINES.
Black lines in rays, or intersecting each other in the form of diamonds or other devices, on the sides of books, which present a good appearance if well executed, are ruled with steel or swan pens, the nibs being formed to the size required by the boldness of the lines. The vinegar-black mixed with a portion of gum-arabic, to neutralize a part of the action of the acid and make it of a stronger consistency, will be found to answer best. Whatever the pattern, it should be slightly traced with the folder, and the design be afterwards marked with the pen, kept steady by the aid of a ruler.
BLACKING THE SQUARES.
Unless coloured uniformly, the whole of the designs before described will not produce the best effect if the squares remain plain or variously tinted; it is, therefore, necessary to black the edges and squares of the board, and the cap over the head-band. This is done with a piece of any firm soft substance on the edges, and with a sponge within the volume, sufficiently below the part where the end-papers will cover. Finally, the covers should be well pastewashed and left to dry.
BANDS AND TITLE-PIECES.
Where the backs are flat it will be necessary to mark the place intended for the bands in gilding. For this purpose the binder should have patterns of the various forms and sizes cut out of thin board, a little longer and double the breadth of the volumes, so that they may be held firmly on the sides, while the bands are marked across the back through the apertures cut in the pattern. It is usual to give a double band at the bottom of the back, and therefore this must be allowed for in the pattern, which lengthened portion must be placed even with the edge of the boards at the tail of the volume, and the bands marked with the folder. By this plan the whole of the bands in sets of books will present a parallel line, and the bad effect produced by the inequalities arising from compassing the distances and trusting to the sight will be avoided. A great saving of time is also effected, as the patterns once made will serve for a very considerable period.
On the fancy colours and sprinkles it is usual to attach lettering-pieces of morocco. For this purpose the morocco, or roan if common work, is cut lengthways of the grain, according to the space between the bands, and the slip placed across the back to measure the breadth, and then cut off. Then, slightly damping on the flesh-side, it must be pared as thin and equal as possible, and the edges sloped evenly down, so as to bring it to the exact size of the square it is to occupy. Should the back require two pieces,—viz.: another for the volume or contents,—it may be proper to vary the colour. These title-pieces are pasted evenly on, a portion of paste rubbed over them with the finger, and then attached firmly and equally by rubbing down the edges with the folder, when the paste must be well washed off with a clean sponge. Where economy is an object, the squares intended for the title may be darkened with brown or black, which will show the lettering very well.