A Manual of the Malay language / With an Introductory Sketch of the Sanskrit Element in Malay

INTRODUCTION.

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The interest of Englishmen in the Malay language began with the early ventures of the East India Company in the Far East, in the first years of the seventeenth century. It was the language of commerce everywhere east of the Bay of Bengal, and our earliest adventurers found it spoken at the trading ports which they visited. The Portuguese had preceded them by a century, and the Dutch had been a little earlier in the same field. Our countrymen seem to have been indebted to the latter for their first Malay vocabulary. The minutes of the East India Company record how, on the 22d January 1614, “a book of dialogues, heretofore translated into Latin by the Hollanders, and printed with the Malacca tongue, Mr. Hakluyt having now turned the Latin into English, and supposed very fit for the factors to learn, was ordered to be printed before the departure of the ships.”1

At present the use of Malay, as far as Englishmen are concerned, is chiefly confined to the officers of the Colonial Government in the British possessions in the Straits of Malacca and in the native states adjoining them, and to other residents in those parts, and in the Dutch settlements in the East. To these may be added the English communities of Labuan and Sarawak, and merchants, traders, and seamen all over the Eastern Archipelago. The limited extent of our Malay possessions, when they are compared with the magnificent islands which make up Netherlands India, excuse us, no doubt, for the secondary place which we occupy in all researches connected with the language and literature of the Malays. To the Dutch their colonies in the Eastern seas are what our Indian Empire is to us; and with them the study of Malay, Javanese, Kawi, &c., takes the place of Persian, Hindustani, Tamil, Sanskrit, &c., which occupy our civilians in India. The extent and value of Dutch works on Malay subjects is, however, but little known to Englishmen in the East, owing to their general ignorance of the Dutch language. It is not too much to say that any one aiming at a thorough knowledge of the language, literature, and history of the Malay people should commence his task by learning Dutch.

Malay is the language not of a nation, but of tribes and communities widely scattered in the East, and is probably spoken with greatest purity in the states of Kedah and Perak, on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula. It is spoken in all the states of the Peninsula, in Sumatra, Sunda, Java, Borneo, Celebes, Flores, Timor, and Timor Laut, the Moluccas, and the Philippines. Traces of it are found among the numerous Polynesian dialects, and in the language of the islanders of Formosa. Siam proper has a large Malay population, descendants mainly of captives taken in war, and the language is therefore in use there in places; it is found also here and there on the coasts and rivers of Anam and Cochin-China. No other language of the Eastern Archipelago is understood over such an extensive area, and it is the common means of communication between the numerous tribes and races of the Malay family whose languages and dialects differ.

Logan supposes that the earliest inhabitants of the Archipelago were tribes of Africo-Indian origin, who peopled the Eastern islands as well as the more accessible portions of the Continent, descendants of whom he recognises in the negro and quasi-negro tribes that are still preserved in some of the mountains of the Malay Peninsula, Siam, and Anam. To these succeeded immigrant tribes from Mid-Asia, by way of the Irawadi, whom Logan designates by the term of the Tibeto-Anam family, all the races and languages from Tibet to Anam being included under it. “By a long-continued influx this family spread itself over the Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Celebes; but its farther progress over the many islands to the north and east appears to have been checked by the older races. It was probably only by slow steps and by settling at many points that it gained a firm footing even in the western islands, and a long period must have elapsed before its tribes became so populous and spread so far into the interior as to enable them to absorb and destroy the earlier occupants.”2 The variety which exists among the languages and dialects in the region affected by these movements is thus accounted for by Logan:— “The languages imported by the Tibeto-Anamese settlers differed as did those of the natives, and the combinations formed in different places from the contact of the two families varied in the proportions of each which entered into them. But the structures of the native tongues had strong affinities amongst themselves, and predominated in all these new combinations.”3

The idea presented by this sketch of the origin of the aboriginal Malay language is that of a mixed dialect, borrowing something from the Tibeto-Anam languages (the influence of which would be more apparent in the western settlements), and gradually approaching the Africo-Indian forms farther east.4 “Lastly,” Logan supposes, “a later Indian influence, belonging to a far more advanced civilisation, flowed in a great stream into the Western Archipelago, and cut off that of the Irawadi, before its linguistic operation had made much progress.”5 It is to this epoch that we must ascribe the introduction of the Sanskrit element into the Malay language.

Malay is mainly dissyllabic, but there are not wanting evidences of a former monosyllabic tendency. The syllable bu, bun, or bung, for instance, occurs in a considerable number of words conveying an idea of roundness:—

Bu-lan	the moon.
Bu-lat	round.
Bu-ah	fruit.
Bu-yong	a jar.
Bu-tir	a grain, globule.
Bu-sar	an arch.
Bu-kit	a hill.
Bu-sut	an anthill.
Bun-tar	round.
Bun-ting	pregnant.
Bun-chit	pot-bellied.
Bun-tut.	the buttocks.
Bun-toh	a numeral affix implying rotundity (cf. lún, Burmese), used with such words as chin-chin, a ring; and kail, a fishhook.
Bung-kok	hump-backed.
Bung-kus	a bundle.

Many others might be cited.6

Another characteristic list of words might be made, compounded with the monosyllable tang (which in Sakai and Semang means “hand”), and conveying an idea of seizing or holding.

Tang-an	the hand.
Tang-kap	to seize.
Tang-kei	a stalk.
Tang-gong	to support.
Tang-gal	to drop off (having left hold).
Tong-kat	a walking-stick, &c.

The history of the Malay people is to be discovered in the language itself, for no authentic records of pre-Muhammadan times exist. Just as an insight into the early history of our own nation may be obtained by analysing the component parts of the English tongue, and assigning to each of the languages which have contributed to make it what it is their due proportion of influence, so, by resolving the Malay language into its separate elements, of which native, Sanskrit, and Arabic are the chief, and by examining the words contributed by each, it is possible to follow with some approach to historical accuracy the successive advances which the Malay people have made on the path of civilisation.

The aboriginal dialect, prior to the admixture of Sanskrit, must have been but the poor vocabulary of men hardly raised above savage life. The purely native element in Malay furnishes all the necessary terms to express the physical objects surrounding men leading a primitive life in the forest, and all that has to do with their food, dwellings, agriculture, fishing, hunting, and domestic affairs.

The use of a Sanskrit word for “plough” seems to record a revolution in agriculture. The primitive cultivation of the Malays was carried on by clearing and burning the hill-sides (a system still largely adopted in native states where land is plentiful and timber valueless), and the cultivation of the wet ricefields of the plains, which necessitates the use of the plough, would thus seem to have been resorted to only after the arrival of the Hindus.

As soon as the analysis reaches moral ideas, or objects requiring some advance in civilisation, it is found that they are expressed by words of foreign origin. These are, for the most part, Sanskrit or Arabic. The latter require no notice here, for they are of comparatively recent introduction. For the most part, they consist of terms incidental to the ethical and religious teaching of the Muhammadans. The Arabic element in Malay is not accurately determinable, for new expressions are constantly being introduced.

A sketch of the Sanskrit element in Malay is all that there is space for here.

A careful classification of the principal Sanskrit words which are found in Malay helps to indicate what must have been the condition of society when the Aryan came into contact with the islanders of Sumatra. It shows, independently of other proof, that Hindu colonisation must have gradually introduced the Malay races to institutions, ideas, pursuits, and wants to which they had hitherto been strangers. Many of the incidents of commerce, most of the metals and precious stones, the pomp and ceremony of royalty, and the use of the elephant, are shown, by the Sanskrit nomenclature employed in describing them, to be of Hindu importation. From this it is not difficult to infer the primitive condition of a people to whom all these things were unknown. So, the Sanskrit names of many weapons indicate a period when the rude weapons of savage Malay tribes—blowpipes, spears, &c.—were supplemented by arms of a more formidable character, for which they were indebted to India. Other groups of words show, independently of other proof, that the Hindu religion was successfully planted among the Malays and flourished for a time, and that the monarchical form of government was introduced in Malay countries by Hindu settlers and rulers.

The word “rulers” is used advisedly, for the theory of Marsden as to the manner of the introduction of Hinduism seems to possess greater claims to general acceptance than that advocated by certain other writers, notably Leyden and Crawfurd. Crawfurd asserted that the Sanskrit words adopted in Malay came originally through the Hindu priesthood, and that the priests through whom this was effected belonged to the Telugu race, this, in his opinion, being the people who, commencing by trading with the Malays, proceeded to partial settlement in their country, and ended by converting them to Hinduism and introducing the language and literature of the Hindus. He entirely discountenances the idea that Sanskrit could have been introduced by a people of whom it was the vernacular language.7 He admits, however, that in Southern India Sanskrit was itself a foreign tongue; that Sanskrit has found its way into Javanese and Malay in a state of comparative purity, and not intermixed with Telugu; and that there is no trace whatever of any extensive settlement of the Telugus in the Malay Archipelago.

Marsden’s contention, on the other hand, points to Gujarat as the quarter from which Hindu civilisation penetrated to the far East, and to conquest as the mode in which the way was cleared for its introduction.8

Before proceeding to classify some of the Sanskrit words which are found in Malay, and to deduce any theories from their presence, it is necessary, in order to avoid misconception, to notice several difficulties which cannot be overlooked.

In the first place, it is not meant to be asserted that the Malays have obtained all the words enumerated further on direct from the people of India. All theories founded upon the presence of Sanskrit words in Malay must apply with equal force to Javanese, which contains a larger proportion of Sanskrit words than Malay. “Sanskrit words are found in greatest purity in the Javanese, and next to it in the Malay, their corruption increasing as we recede from Java and Sumatra.”9 It may be assumed, therefore, that in addition to the influence which Hinduism exerted among the Malays of Sumatra by means of direct intercourse with India, there was also a second source from which the Malays derived a great portion of their Hindu nomenclature, namely, the ancient Hindu kingdoms of Java.10

These remarks may be illustrated by reference to the fourth column of the lists of words which follow.

Again, some of the Sanskrit words in the following lists are synonyms merely, there being native or Arabic words, or both, in common use to express the same object.

In some instances, too, the words quoted are not often heard in the colloquial dialect, but occur in books to which in many cases they have been transplanted from Javanese romances.

All these circumstances seriously modify the possibility of drawing general conclusions from an analysis of the body of Sanskrit vocables found in Malay. The questions to be decided seem to be (1) whether it is possible that such a mass of terms for common objects (for they are by no means confined to words incident to the Hindu religion) could have been imported into Malay by any means except by oral communication with a Sanskrit-speaking people; (2) supposing that this could have been effected through some later Indian dialect, itself largely tinged with Sanskrit (as the Latin words in English came to us with the Norman speech), what dialect was this? Telugu, as Crawfurd thinks, Gujarati, to which Marsden inclines, or what?

It is in order to contribute to the settlement of such questions as these that a classification of some of the Sanskrit terms in Malay has been attempted in this Introduction.11 It is hoped that the subject may attract the attention of those more competent to deal with it, and that the researches of Sanskrit scholars may facilitate a decision which there is no pretension to pronounce here.

The centre of Hindu influence in Malay states would seem to have been the court. From the governing classes the use of Sanskrit expressions would gradually spread among the people. To this day there are certain Sanskrit words which are applied to royalty alone, there being native equivalents when the non-privileged classes are intended. The words putra and putrî afford an instance in point. Meaning simply “son” and “daughter” in Sanskrit, they have, from the fact of Sanskrit nomenclature having been affected at Malay courts, come to mean “prince” and “princess,” and are applied only to the sons and daughters of rajas.

At the chief seats of Hindu government, there must have been Brahmans conversant with the sacred writings, whose teaching would gradually be the means of introducing a taste for Hindu learning and literature. Bacha, to read (from bach, to speak), is Sanskrit, but tulis, to write, is a native word,12 and surat, a writing, is Arabic. Language, therefore, in this instance does not throw much light on the progress made by the Malays in the art of writing in the pre-Muhammadan stage of their history. Rock-inscriptions found in Province Wellesley and Singapore prove, however, that at some remote period an ancient Indian character was known on the Peninsula,13 though it was probably confined to religious purposes.

Crawfurd, writing in 1852, stated that Malay can be written or spoken without the least difficulty, without a word of Sanskrit or Arabic, and described the foreign elements in Malay as “extrinsic and unessential.”14 But several words of the first necessity are Sanskrit. It would be difficult to speak Malay intelligibly, while avoiding the use of the relative pronouns yang (Sansk. yas, ya, yat, who, which) and mana (Sansk. mâna, measure), or of the common auxiliary sudah (Sansk. çuddha,15 pure, acquitted), which denotes the past tense. A long list might be made of common words not included in any of the following groups, which are almost pure Sanskrit, such as bawa, to bring (vaha, bearing, carrying); kata, to say (kath, to tell, talk); biasa, accustomed (abhyâsa, reflection); langkah, to step, stride (langh, to stride over); kelahi, to fight (kalaha, quarrel); and niala, to blaze, to burn (jval). Nor is the influence of Sanskrit in Malay confined to words which have been adopted in comparative purity. An extension of the sphere of research reveals whole groups of Malay words which seem to be formed from some Sanskrit root, and to retain to some extent its signification. Thus the Sanskrit root ju (to push on, impel) may perhaps be detected in such words as juwang, to rush against; jungur, prominent, a beak; jungang, prominent (of teeth); juring, sharp, pointed; jurus, to pull, course, direction; juluk, to thrust upwards; julir, a kind of harpoon; julur, to wag, to wriggle; &c.

Ap is a common termination of Malay words, e.g., tangkap, to seize; chakap, to speak; silap, to mistake, &c. The presence of the Sanskrit root âp (to attain, obtain) is not indeed to be assumed in every case, but it is difficult to resist the conviction that it does form a part of many Malay derivations. Dapat, to obtain; rapat, to approach; asap, smoke (cf. vyâpta); awap, steam; tangkap, to seize, grasp; alap (Jav.), to take; are instances which, among others, might be cited.

Gal (Sansk., to drop, to distil, percolate, to fall) is another root which seems to enter into the composition of Malay words, e.g., tanggal, to fall off, to drop out; tinggal, to leave, forsake; tunggal, solitary; panggal, to chop off, a portion chopped off. Compare also gali, to dig; tenggalam, to sink; tugal, to sow rice by putting seeds into holes made with a sharp stick; galah, a pole; gala-gala, pitch.

If it be correct to assign a Sanskrit origin to all or any of these words, they belong to a much earlier epoch than the comparatively pure Sanskrit words, the importation of which into Malay is the subject now under discussion.

The presence of Sanskrit words in the Malay language was first remarked by Sir William Jones,16 and the subject received more attention at the hands of Marsden, who gives a short list of fifteen words, “taken, with little pains in the selection, from a Malayan dictionary.”17 Many of the Sanskrit words are, as Marsden observes, “such as the progress of civilisation must soon have rendered necessary, being frequently expressive of the feelings of the mind, or denoting those ordinary modes of thought which result from the social habits of mankind, or from the evils that tend to interrupt them.” This assertion might have been put in more forcible terms had it occurred to the author to include not only words expressive of thought and feelings, but even some signifying natural objects, though doubtless most of these are expressed by aboriginal words. Hari, day, is clearly identical with the Sanskrit hari, “the sun,” which is also used as a name of Vishnu or Krishna. Mata-hari, the sun (Malay), is thus “the eye of Hari,” and is a compound formed of the native word mata and the Sanskrit hari. Halilintar, a thunderbolt, seems to be compounded similarly of hari and lontar (to hurl), “hurled by Hari.” Here the r has been softened into l. The Sanskrit kapala has almost entirely superseded the use of the old native word ulu or hulu, the head; the latter, however, is found in composition with a Sanskrit word in the substantive hulubalang, a war-chief, from hulu, head, and bala, an army.

The extent to which the Malays are indebted to Sanskrit for words to express the human body and members is shown in the following list:—

English.	Malay.	Sanskrit.	Other Languages18
The body	salîra	çarîra	J. sarira; Bat. sorira.
Limb, member, body	anggûta	angga	J. ongga.
Form, appearance	rûpa	rûpa	J., S., Bat., Mak., and Bu. rupa.
Joint	sendi	saṃdhi	S. sandi; D. sandik, bound; Tag. and Bis. sandig, unite.
Head	kapâla	kapâla (the skull)	J., S., D., Mak. kapala, chief; Bat. kapala, thick.
Tongue	lîdah	lih (to lick), lîdha (licked)	J. lidah; Bat. dila; Mak. and Bu. lila; D. jela; Tag. and Bis. dila.
Pulse	nâdî	nâḍî (artery, vein, intestine)
Shoulder	bâhû	bâhu (the arm)	J. bahu; S. and D. baha.
Hair of the body	rôma	roman
Foot	pâda	pâda	Kw. pada.

Time and its division and measurement have supplied a number of Sanskrit terms to the Malay language, most of which are so necessary in everyday life that it is difficult to conceive the poverty of a dialect which contained no words to express them. The following list contains the greater number of them:—

English.	Malay.	Sanskrit.	Other Languages.
Time	kâla, kâli	kâla	J. and S. kala.
When	tatkâla	tad (this) kâla
Time, period	katika	ghatikâ (a division of time)	Bat. katika; D. katika.
Time, period, hour	dewâsa	divasa (a day)	J. diwasa, adult; Mak. rewusa.
Just now	tâdî	tad (this, that)	S. tadi.
Day	hârî	hari (the sun)	J. and B. hari.
Day	dîna	dina	J. dina.
Dawn	dînahârî	from dina and hari
Evening, sunset	senja, or senja- kala	saṃdhyâ (twilight)	Bat. sonja; J. chandik-kala, evg. twilight.
Always	santîasa	nityaças	J. nityasa.
Old, former	sadîa
Former time	sadîa-kâla	sâdhya (from sâdh, to finish, accomplish)
Continually	sada-kâla	sâda (perishing)
Time (when)	bîla	velâ
Time, season, period	mâsa	mâsa (month)	J. and S. mangsa; Tag. masa.

Another group of Sanskrit words found in Malay is that comprising articles of commerce, weights and measures, &c. Their presence suffices without other evidence to show that for their knowledge of the commercial value of many products the East Indian islanders were indebted to traders from Hindustan, who, indeed, probably introduced not only the names of, but the use of, their weights and measures. Buah pala, the Malay phrase for the “nutmeg,” is in strictness a pleonasm, for phala signifies “fruit” in Sanskrit, as buah does in Malay.

TERMS OF COMMERCE.

English.	Malay.	Sanskrit.	Other Languages.
Nutmeg	pâla	phala (fruit)	J. and S. pala.
Clove	lawang	lavaṃga
Eagle-wood	găhârû	aguru	J., S., and Mak. garu; D. garo, perfume.
Camphor	kâpur, kâpur bârus	karpûra	J., S., and D. kapur-barus; Mak. kaporo barusu
Sandalwood	chandâna	chandana	J. and S. chendana; Tag. and Bis. sandana
Musk	kastûrî	kastûrî	J. and S. kasturi; Mak. kasaturi; Tag, and Bis. kastoli.
Charcoal	ârang	aṅgâra	J. and S. areng; S. arang; Bat. agong; D. aring; Tag. and Bis. oling.
Sugar	gûla	guḍa (molasses)	J., S., and D. gula; Mak. golla.
Saltpetre	sandâwa	saindhava (rocksalt)	J. sendawa; S. chindawa.
Silk	sûtra	sûtra (thread, fibre)	J. and S. sutra; Bat. suntora; Mak; and Bu. sutara; Tag. sutla.
Cotton	kâpas	karpâsa	J., S., and D. kapas Bat. hapas; Mak. kapasa; Bis. gapas.
Gunny-bag	gônî	goṇi	S. goné
Price	harga	argha	S. and Bat. harga; J. and D. rega; Mak. angga; Tag. and Bis. halaga.
Profit	lâba	lâbha	Kw., Bat., Mak., and D. laba; Tag. and Bis. laba, increase, usury.
Scales for weighing	narâcha	nârâchî (a gold smith’s scales)	Kw. naracha; J. and S. traju
A bhar (native weight = 3 pikuls)	băhâra	bhâra (a load, a weight)	Kw. and Mak. bara 100 millions: Bis. bala, to load on the back.
A cubit	hasta	hasta	J. and S. asta.
A number, figure	ângka	aṅka (a mark, a cipher)	J. ongka; S., Mak., Bu., and D. angka.
Ten thousand	laksa	laksha (100,000)	J. leksa; S., D., Tag. and Bis. laksa; Bat. loksa; Mak., lassa.
A million	jûta	ayuta (10,000)	J. and S. yuta.

Many of the metals and most of the precious stones are known to the Malays by their Sanskrit names, even those which are found in Malay countries.

English.	Malay.	Sanskrit.	Other Languages.
Gold	âmas, mas	mas (to mete, to measure)	J. emas; S. mas; Bat. omas; D. amas; Tag. and Bis. amas, gold, weight.
Gold	kanchâna	kânchana	Kw. and S. kanchana.
Copper	tambâga	tâmra	J. tembaga; S. tambaga; Bat. tombaga; Mak. tambaga; Tag. and Bis. tumbaga.
Tin	tîmah	tîvra	J., S., and D. timah; Bat. simbora; Mak. timbera; Tag. and Bis. tingga.
Quicksilver	râsa	rasa	J., S., Mak., and D. rasa.
Pinchbeck	suwâsa	suvarchasa (brilliant)	J., S., Bat., and Mak. suwasa.
Glass	kâcha	kâcha	J., S., Mak., and Bu. kacha; D. kacha; and kasa; Tag. kasa, blue and green stone.
Mica	âbrak19	abhra (amber, talc)
Crystal	golega	golaka (globule)
Jewel, precious stone	mânî	maṇi	J. mani.
Do.	mânikam	maṇika	Kw. and S. manikem; Mak. manikang.
Do.	kamâla	kamala (lotus)	Kw. kuma‘a; Bat. humala, snake-stone.
Sapphire	nîlam (nîla, blue)	nîla (blue)	J. and S. nila; Mak. nyila, blue.
Opal	bidûri	vidûra (a mountain which produces lapis lazuli)
Ruby	dalîma	dâlima (pomegranate)
Jewel, brilliant	mustîka	mushtika (goldsmith)
Topaze	pusparâgam	pushparâga
Pearl	mutia, mutiara	muktâ
Jewel, precious stone	permâta	paramata (excellence)	Kw. pramati, a very beautiful object.
Jewels of five kinds	panchalôgam	panchaloha (five metals)

The implements, utensils, instruments, &c., the names of which, if not the things themselves, the Malay races have borrowed from their Indian conquerors and rulers, are as follows:—

English.	Malay.	Sanskrit.	Other Languages.
A lock	kunchî	kunchikâ (a key)	J., S., and D. kunchi; Bat. hunsi; Mak. konchi.
A bell	ganta	ghaṇṭâ	J. and S. genta; Bat. gonta; D. ganta; Mak. garaganta.
A water vessel	kindî	kuṇḍî	J. and S. kendi.
A net	jâla	jâla	J., S., Bat., Mak., and D. jala.
A box	petî	peṭî (basket, bag)	S. peti; Mak. patti; D. pati.
Name of a sword	chora	kshura (a razor)
A plough	tanggâla	hala	Bat. tinggala; Mak. nangkala.
Chess	châtur	chatur (four)	J. and S. chatur.
Dice	jûdî	dyûta (game at dice)	J. judi; Bat. juji.
A saw	gargâjî	krakacha	J. graji; S. gergaji; Bat. and Mak. garagaji.
An awl	jâra	ârâ	J. and S. jara.
A coffin	karanda	karanda (basket)	Bat. hurondo.
Royal umbrella	chatrâ	chhattra
Salver with a pedestal	charâna	charaṇa (a foot)	S. charana; Bat. sarano; D. sarana.
A wheel	jantrâ	yantra (an engine or machine)	J. jontra; S. jantra.
Chariot	râta	ratha	J. rata.
Lyre, lute	kechâpî	kachchhapi	S. kachapi; Bat. husapi; D. kasapi.
Flute	bangsî	vançî
Pipe, flute	mûri	muralî

The terms of adulation common in India in the mouths of inferiors addressing superiors have no equivalents in Malay. It is noticeable, however, that some of the most ordinary Malay phrases of politeness are Sanskrit. Tâbek (J. and S. tabé; Bat. santabi; Mak. tabeya; D. tabi; Tag. and Bis. tabi; Tag. santabi, to show respect), which corresponds to the Indian salaam in communications between Europeans and Malays, means properly “pardon,” and is derived from the Sanskrit kshantavya, excusable; sîla, to sit cross-legged20 (the respectful attitude indoors), is the Sanskrit çîl, to meditate, to worship; and sîla, a Malay term of politeness, which in some respects answers to our “if you please,” but which also means “to invite,” has its origin in the Sanskrit word çîla, good conduct, moral practice. The same language, too, supplies a considerable number of words denoting family and relationship:—

English.	Malay.	Sanskrit.	Other Languages.
Father	âyah	vayas (prime of life)	J. ayah, grandson; S. aya; Mak. aya, mother.
Brother	sûdâra	sodarya	J. saudara.
Husband	swâmî	svâmin
Wife	istrî	strî (a woman)	J. estri; S. istri.
Virgin	ânak dâra	dâra (wife), adâra (unmarried)	Kw. dara; J. lara; Bat. dara; Mak. rara; S. dara, a young woman who has just got her first child.
Relationship	pangkat	paṅkti (a line, row)
Race	bangsa	vaṃça	J. wongsa; S., Bat., and D. bangsa; Mak. bansa.
Family	kulawarga	kula (family), varga (class)	J. kulawarga.
Do.	kulawangsa	vaṃça

The few astronomical terms known to the Malays have been borrowed either from Sanskrit or Arabic, the former supplying the following:—

English.	Malay.	Sanskrit.	Other Languages.
Eclipse	grahana	grahaṇa	J. grahana.
Firmament	udara	adhara (lower)
Celestial sphere	chakrawâla	chakra-vâla (horizon; a range of mountains supposed to encircle the earth and to be the limit of light and darkness)
Atmosphere	bumantâra	cf. dyumantara (brilliancy)	Kw. bomantara; J. jumantara.
The heavens, æther	angkasa	âkâça	Kw. and S. akasa.
The milky-way	bîmasaktî	bhîma (terrible), çakti (strength, power)	S. bimasakti; J. bimasakti, the name of a star
Pleiades	kertîka	kṛittikâ (the third of the lunar mansions)
The sign Cancer in the Zodiac	mangkâra	makara	J. mangkara, crab.
Astrology	panchalîma	panchan (five)

To these may be added Râhû (Sansk. Râhu, a deity to whom eclipses are ascribed) and Kedû (Sansk. Ketu, the mythological name of the descending node, represented as a headless demon), monsters who are supposed by the Malays to cause eclipses by swallowing the moon. To denote the points of the compass the Malays have native, Sanskrit, and Arabic terms. Utâra (uttara),21 the north, and daḳsina (dakshiṇa), the south, are Sanskrit words; and paḳsina, the north, has evidently been coined by Malays in imitation of daḳsina.

The elephant is most generally known all over the Archipelago by its Sanskrit name gajah. Sanskrit terms are also used to signify the driver of an elephant and several articles used in connection with this animal. From these circumstances we may probably conclude, with Crawfurd, that the art of training and domesticating elephants was first learned by the Malays from natives of India.22

English.	Malay.	Sanskrit.	Other Languages.
Elephant	gâjah	gaja	J., S., and D. gajah; Bat. and Mak. gaja; Tag. gadia; Bis. gadya.
Elephant-driver	gambâla-gâjah	gopâla (herdsman)
Goad	ângkus, kwâsa	aṅkuça
Foot-chain	ândûwân	andu (chain)
Front part of the head	gomba, kumba	kumbha
Unbroken, vicious (of an elephant); the condition called musth	meta	mada (elephant in rut)	Kw. meta, wild elephant.
Hobbles for securing the feet	sengkăla	çṛiṅkhala (a chain)

The words of command used by elephant-drivers in the Malay peninsula appear, however, to be adapted mainly from the Siamese, and it is from this people that the Malays of the continent have acquired much of their modern knowledge of the art of capturing, subduing, and training the elephant. The names of animals, birds, &c., indicate, as might be expected, that while most of the varieties known to the Malays are indigenous, there are some species which have been imported, or which, belonging to other countries, are known by name only in the Archipelago. The word morga, (mṛiga) and satwâ (sattva),23 both meaning “an animal,” are Sanskrit, and if the commoner word benâtang is derived, as seems possible, from the Sanskrit vana, forest, there is no purely native generic term to signify a beast or animal. While, therefore, the early Malay tribes had names for all the animals domesticated by them, as well as those which they encountered in their forests, it was not until the period of their intercourse with more civilised races from India that they learned to generalise and to comprehend the brute creation under one term. The following Sanskrit words for animals, &c., occur in Malay:—

English.	Malay.	Sanskrit.	Other Languages.
Lion	sînga	siṃha	J. and S. singa and singha; Mak. and D. singa.
Jackal	srîgâla	cṛigâla	Bat. sorigala; J. segawon, a dog.
Camel	onta	ushṭra (a camel)	J. and Mak. unta; S. onta.
Wild bull	ândâka	dhâka	Kw. daka and andaka.
Ichneumon	charpalei	sarpâri (sarpa, a snake)
A small yellow snake, about a span long	chintâ-mani	chintâ-maṇi (a fabulous gem, the possessor of which gets all he wishes for)
Scorpion	kâla	kâla (black)	J., S., D., and Malg. kala; Bat. kala; Mak. pati-kala.
Crow	gâgak	kâka	J. and S. gayak; Bat. gak; Mak. kala; D. kak.
Peacock	mĕraḳ	barha, varha	J. and S. merak; Mak. muraka; D. marak.
Goose24	angsa, hangsa, gangsa	haṃsa	J. ongsa; S. gangsa.
Pigeon	mĕr-ăpâti, perapâti	pârâpatî	S. japati; Bat. darapati; Tag. palapati; Bis. salapati.
Eagle-falcon	râjawâlî	rajjuvâla (a species of bird)
Indian cuckoo (Gracula religiosa)	kokila	kokila	J. kokila.

Perhaps the Malay word harîmau (Kw. rimong; Bat. arimo, tiger-cat; D. harimaung, panther), a tiger, may have been formed from Hari (Krishna or Vishnu) and mṛiga (an animal). Words similarly compounded with mṛiga (Malay morga) are not uncommon in Sanskrit, e.g., Kṛishṇa-mṛiga (the black antelope), mahâ-mṛiga (an elephant).25 The terms in use for “horse” and “sheep” seem to indicate that those animals were first brought to Malay countries from India. Kûda, horse (Kw. and S. kuda), is derived by Crawfurd from ghora (Hindi), by others from kudra (Tamul). Bîri-bîri (sheep) is said to be borrowed from the Hindi bher, which is itself derived from the Sanskrit bheḍa, a ram, or from bhîru (Sansk.), a goat. Certain fabulous birds and reptiles which belong to the domain of Hindu mythology have their places also in Malay folk-lore; such as garuḍa,26 the eagle of Vishnu, and Jaṭâyu (Malay jintâyu), a fabulous vulture; chandrawâsi, a name given by Malays to a fabulous bird which is heard but never seen, is also evidently of Sanskrit origin. To these nâga, a dragon, may be added (J., S., Bat., Mak., Bu., and D. naga).

The vegetable kingdom supplies a long list of trees, plants, and flowers which are known to the Malays by Sanskrit names. Some of these are closely connected with another group of words to be noticed presently, namely, those which belong to the department of religion. The use of sweet-smelling flowers is a noticeable feature in the religious worship of the Hindus, and the fact that many flowers held by them to be sacred to the worship of particular gods are called by Malays by the same names which they bear in the temples of India, is a remarkable example of an historical lesson latent in words. It points to the fact, abundantly proved by other evidence, that Brahmanism once held sway where it has long been superseded by the faith of Islam, and that words which have no special significance for the modern Muhammadan Malay were fraught with mystic solemnity for his distant ancestors.

In many cases, indeed, the Sanskrit names have been applied by the Malays to different plants from those designated by the same expressions in India. In other cases, names unknown in classical Sanskrit, but obviously compounded of Sanskrit words, have been given by the Malays or Javanese. The common native Malay term for “flower” is bûnga; sâri (Javanese sari, Sansk. kesara) and puspa (Sansk. pushpa) have been borrowed from India.

English or Latin.	Malay.	Sanskrit.	Other Languages.
Michelia champaka	champaka	champaka (dedicated by the Hindus to Krishna; one of Kamadeva’s arrows is tipped with it)	J. and S. champaka; Mak. champaga.
Jonesia asoka	ângsôka	açoka (sacred to Mahadeva, and held in the highest veneration by the Hindus)	J. angsoka and soka.
Mesua ferrea	nâgasârî (Rigg supposes the Malay plant to be Acacia pedunculata; Marsden, Acacia aurea).	nâgakesara (“The delicious odour of its blossoms justly gives them a place in the quiver of Kamadeva.” —Sir William Jones)
Jasminum sambac (jasmine)	malâtî	mâlatî (Jasminum grandiflorum27)	J. malati; S. melati.
Arabian jasmine (Nyctanthes?)	melor	mâdhura (cf. malura, Cratæva religiosa)	J. menur; Kw. menur, silver.
Ocymum basilicum (holy basil)	sulasi	tulasî (sacred to Krishna)	J. selasih and telasih; S. selasi; Mak. tolasi; Tag. solasi.
Uvaria odorata (or cananga)	kenânga	kânana28 (a forest)	J. kenonga; Mak. and Bu. kananga.
Santalum album, sandal-wood	chandâna	chandana (“Perpetually mentioned in the most ancient books of the Hindus as flourishing on the mountains of Malaya”— Sir Wm. Jones)	J. and S. chendana; Tag. and Bis. sandana.
Plumieria acutifolia	kambôja	kâmboja (a kind of mimosa)	S. kamboja.
Nelumbium speciosum, lotus.	saroja	saroja	J. saroja.
Vitex trifoliata	lagundi 29	nirgandhi (“Which Bontius calls lagondi.” —Sir Wm. Jones). -Gandhi is used in the latter part of a compound word with same meaning that gandha has: “smell,” “odour”	J. legundi; Bat. gundi.
Alpinia galanga, or Curcuma reclinata	gâdamâla	gandha, smell; mâlâ, a garland
Justicia gandarusa	gandarusa	gandha, smell; rusa (Malay), a deer(?)	S. gandarusa
Hibiscus abelmoschus	gandapûra	gandha, smell; pura, calix of a flower	Mak. gandapura
Hedichium coronarium	gandasûlî	gandha, smell	S. gandasoli.
Liquidambar altingiana	rasamala	surasa, sweet, elegant; mâlâ, a garland
Carthamus tinctorius, safflower	kasumba	kusumbha	J., S., Mak., and D. kasumba; Tag. kasubha; Bis. kasobha.
Crocus sativus, saffron	kumkumâ	kuṃkuma	J. kamkuma; Mak. kuma.
Alyxia stellata; an odoriferous root used in medicine	pûlasâri	phul (Hind.), flower; sari (Javanese), from kesara (Sansk.), a flower
Tectonia grandis, teak	jâtî	jâti (synonymous with malati), Jasminum grandiflorum	J., S., Bat., Mak., Bu., and D. jati.
Pterocarpus indicus	ângsâna	asana (Terminalia alata tomentosa)	J. and S. angsana.
Borassus flabelliformis	lontar	tâla	J. and S. lontar; Bat. otal; Mak. tala; Bu. ta; Tag. tual.
Eugenia jambu, roseapple	jambû	jambu	J., S., Mak., and D. jambu; Bu. jampu; Tag. dambo; Bat. jambu-jambu, fringe; Bu. jambo-jambo, fringe, plume.
Mangifera indica, mango	mampelam	from Telugu, mampalam; Sansk. mahâphala, “great fruit”	J. pelem; S. ampelem.
Spondias myrobolan (or mangifera)	âmra	âmra (the mango, Mangifera indica); âmrâta (Spondias mangifera)
Punica granatum, pomegranate	dalîma	dâḍima and dâlima
Zizyphus jujuba	bidâra	vidara	J. widara; S. bidara.
Cucurbita lagenaria, gourd, pumpkin	lâbû	alâbu	S. labu; Bat. tabu-tabu; Malg. tawu.
Tricosanthes laciniosa	patôla	paṭola
Cassia fistula	biraksa	vṛiksha (a tree)
Emblica officinalis	malâka	âmalaka (Emblic myrobalan)	S. malaka; Bat. malakah.

Pâlas, palâsa, and palâsang are Malay names for trees of different kinds, not one of which corresponds botanically with the Sanskrit palâça (Butea frondosa, a tree which is held by Hindus to be peculiarly venerable and holy). The preceding list affords several illustrations of a similar misuse of terms. To it might be added several words borrowed from other Indian languages, such as nânas, pine-apple (Hind. ananas), bilimbing (Tamul bilimbi), &c., &c.30

Marsden has remarked on the number of Sanskrit words expressive of the feelings and emotions of the human mind which occur in Malay, and Arabic also furnishes several. Either their synonymous native terms have been lost, or the Malays, at the period of Indian influence, had not reached that stage of civilisation when man commences to analyse and name the emotions he experiences and sees experienced by others. Good and bad qualities, in the same way and for the same reason, seem often to bear Sanskrit appellations. The following list does not profess to be complete:—

English.	Malay.	Sanskrit.	Other Languages.
Pleasure, to be pleased	sûka	sukha	J., S., and D. suka
Joy, rejoiced	suka-chita	sukha-chit (chit = thought, the heart)
Sorrow, grief	dûka	duhkha (pain)	J. and S. duka.
Do.	duka-chita	duhkha-chit	duhkha-chit
Care, anxiety, concern	chinta	chintâ (thought)	J. chipta; S. chinta; Mak. chita; D. and Tag. sinta.
Passionately in love	berâhî	virahin (suffering separation)	J. birahi.
Angry	murka	mûrkha (stupidity)	J. murka, greedy, dissatisfied.
Hope	âsa	âçâ	Tag. asa.
Love	âsmâra	smara	J. and S. asmara.
Avarice, covetousness	lôba	lobha	Kw. loba, voluptuous, luxurious; S. loba, abundant.
Wisdom, understanding	bûdî	buddhi	J. and S. budi.
Stupid, foolish	bôdoh	abodha	J. and S. bodo.
Wise, learned	pandei	paṇḍita	J., S., and Bat. pandé.
Lazy	malas	alasa
Charity, benevolence	dermâ	dharma	J. and S. derma; Bat. dorma, means of gaining affection.
Generous	dermâwan	dharmavant
Fidelity	setîa	satya	J. satya and secha; S. sacha.
Faithful, loyal	setîâwan	satyavant
Thought, to think	sangka	çaṅka
To suspect, conjecture	tarka	tarka (doubt, reason)	J. and S. tarka and terka.
Blame	chelâ	chhala (fraud)	J. chela; Mak. challa.
Misfortune, vile, base	chelâka	chhalaka (deceiving, a deceiver)	J. and S. chelaka; Mak. chilaka; D. chalaka.
Sin, crime	dôsa	dush (to sin)	J., S., Bat., Mak., and D. dosa.
False, untrue	dusta	dushta
Merit meritorious actions	pahâla	phala (fruit, produce, result)	Kw. pahala, fruit, merit.
Happiness, good fortune	bahagîa	bhâgya (lot, fate)	J. bagya; S. bagia; Bat. badiya.
Use, value, quality	guna	guṇa (quality)	J., S., Bat., Mak., and D. guna.

Inter-tribal warfare is usually characteristic of savage tribes, and an ample vocabulary of words connected with fighting and the art of war may be looked for in a language like Malay. But though the native terms are numerous, many have also been furnished by Sanskrit, among which may be instanced the following:—

English.	Malay.	Sanskrit.	Other Languages.
Army	bâla, bâlatantrâ	bala (an army), tantra (series, offspring)	J. and S. bala.
Fort	kôta	kûṭa	J. kuta; Bat. kuta; S., Mak., D., Tag., and Bis. kota.
Bastion, redoubt	mâlawâti 31	balavatî (strong, powerful)?
Weapon, arm	senjâta	sajjâ (armour), sajjatâ, readiness	Kw. and Mak. sanjata; Bat. sonjata; D. sandata.
Bow	pânah	vâṇa (an arrow)	J., S., and D. panah; Mak. pana; Tag. and Bis. pana, arrow.
Dagger	kris	kṛit (to cut, to kill)	J. and S. keris and kris; Bat. horis; Mak. kurisi; Tag. and Bis. kalis.
Discus	chakra	chakra
Club	gada	gadâ	J. gada.
Cross-bow	gandî	gâṇḍiva	J. gandewa.
Pike	sanggamâra	saṃgrâma (war, battle)
Knife	churîka	chhurikâ	Kw. churika, a kris.
Enemy	satrû	çatru	J. and S. satru.
Battlefield	râna	raṇa (battle)	Kw. and S. rana.
Victory	jaya	jaya	J. and S. jaya.

Among the Malays the titles of royalty and nobility, and many of the terms in use for the paraphernalia of the court, are Sanskrit. Logan supposes the native Malayan institutions to have been of a “mixed patriarchal and oligarchical” form.32 Crawfurd was not satisfied that the terms alluded to proved that Hinduism had exercised much influence on Malayan government;33 but when to these is added a long catalogue of words connected with law, justice, and administration, it will probably be apparent that Indian influence has played an important part in moulding the institutions of the Malays. The following are some of the principal titles, &c., in use about the court of a Malay Raja:—

English.	Malay.	Sanskrit.	Other Languages.
King	râja	râj	J., S., and Bat. raja.
Maharaja (a title not confined to royalty, but used also by Malay chiefs)	mahârâja	mahârâja (a king, sovereign)
Adiraja (a title)	âdirâja	âdhirâja (the first or primeval king, epithet of Manu and of a son of Kuru)
King (reigning monarch)	baginda	bhâgya (merit, happiness)	J. bagenda; S. baginda.
Paduka (a title of respect used in addressing persons of rank)	paduka34	pâduka (a shoe)	J. and S. paduka.
Duli (a title used in addressing royalty)	dûli34	dhuli (dust)	J. duli; Bat. daholi.
Queen	permeisûrî	parameçvarî (a title of Durga, wife of Çiva)	J. prameswari; S. permasuri.
Prince	putrâ	putra (a son)	J. and S. putra.
Princess	putrî	putrî (a daughter)	J. and S. putri.
Minister	mantrî	mantrin (councillor)	J. mantri; Mak. mantari; S. mantri, a minor official.
Chief minister	pardana-mantri	pradhâna
Councillor	paramantri	para (highest)
Officer of the household	sîda-sîda	siddha (priest, learned man)
Warrior, royal escort	hulubâlang	bala (army)	J. and Bat. hulubalang.
Sage, royal adviser	pandîta	paṇḍita	J. and S. pandita.
Laksamana (one of the officers of state)	laksamâna	Lakshmaṇa (the son of Daçaratha by Sumitrâ)	J. and S. laksmana.
Treasurer	bandahâra	bhâṇḍâgâra (treasure)	Mak. bandara; J. bendara, master; S. bandaran; custom-house.
Throne	singgahasana	siṃhâsana	Kw. and S. singasana.
Palace	astana	sthâna (place, whence the Persian astana, a threshold, a fakir’s residence)
Crown	makôta	mukuṭa	J. and S. makuta; Mak. makota.
Royal insignia	upachara	upachâra (service)	J. upachara.
Title of a chief who is of noble blood on one side only	magat	mâgadha (the son of a Vaiçya by a Kshatriya woman)
Officer (hero)	punggâwa	puṅgava (a bull; as latter part of compound words, “excellent,” e.g., nara-puṅgava, an excellent warrior)	J., S., and Mak. punggawa.

The incidents of Asiatic government have caused the introduction into the Malay language of such terms as the following, among others:—

English.	Malay.	Sanskrit.	Other Languages.
Country	negrî	nagara and nagarî	J. and S. nagara.
District	dêsa	diçâ	J., and S., Bat., and D. desa; Mak. dessa.
Tax	ûpatî	utpatti	J. and S. upeti.
Hall, court	bâlei	valaya (an enclosure)	S. balé; D. balai, open building; J. balé, bench; Bat. balé, hut on a king’s tomb.
Examine, inquire	preḳsa	parîkshâ	J. priksa; Mak. paressa; D. pariksa and riksa.
Cause, suit	bichara	vichâra (consideration, discussion)	Mak. and D. bichara; J. wichara; S. pichara.
Witness	saḳsi	sâkshin	J., S., D., Tag., and Bis. saksi.
Crime	dosa	dush (to sin)	J., S., Bat., Mak., and D. dosa.
Insult, trespass	ângkâra	ahaṃkâra (pride)	Kw. angkara.
Injustice, oppression	ânyâya	anyâya	J. aniaya.
Inheritance	pusâka	push (to possess)	J., S., and Mak. pusaka.
Action, negotiation	sanggêta	saṃketa (appointment, convention)
Proof	biti	vitti (probability)
Cause, matter in dispute	âchâra	âchara (conduct)
Punishment	siḳsa	çikshâ (learning)	J. and S. siksa; Mak. sessa.
Fine	denda	daṇḍa	J. and S. denda; Bat. dangdang; D. danda.
Prison	panjâra	panjara (a cage)	J. and S. kunjara; Mak. panjara; Bat. binjara; a trap; D. jara and panjara, punished.
Punishment (of a disgraceful kind inflicted on women)	druma	druh (to hurt)
Slave	sahâya	sahâya (companion)
Free, liberated	mardahîka	mṛidh (to pardon?)	J. and S. mardika; Bat. mardaekoh; Mak., Bu., and D. maradeka; Tag. mahadlika
Executioner	palabâya	para (exceeding) bhaya (fear)

The groups of words remaining to be noticed are those connected with the Hindu religion, and with the demon-worship or spirit-worship, which was the earliest form which the religious sentiment took among the Malay tribes.35 After the conversion of the Malays to the faith of Muhammad, the traditions of Hinduism were gradually confused with the aboriginal superstitions, and neither have been entirely obliterated by the cult which superseded them. The belief in the power of malignant spirits to cause misfortune, sickness, and death is still strong among the Malays, whose pawangs or medicine-men claim to be able to propitiate demons by spells, prayers, and offerings. These men frequently invoke benevolent spirits by the names of Rama, Vishnu, and other Hindu deities, in complete ignorance that they are Hindu,36 to counteract the evil influences of malevolent demons. Practices of this sort prevail most generally in places remote from Arab influence.

The Malays did not altogether discard the theological terms of Hinduism when they adopted a new religion. For instance, puâsa,37 abstinence, fasting (Sansk. upavâsa), is used to express the annual fast of the Muhammadans during the month Ramzan. Heaven and hell also retain their Sanskrit names.

The following are some of the principal theological terms which have passed from Sanskrit into Malay:—

English.	Malay.	Sanskrit.	Other Languages.
Religion	âgâma	âgama (sacred science)38	J., S. Mak., Bu., and D. agama.
Spiritual guide	gûrû	guru	J., S. Mak., Bu., and D. guru.
Praise, adoration	puji, puja	pûj (to honour) pûjâ (worshipping)	J. and S. puji, puja; Bat. and Mak. puji; D. mampuji; to invoke.
Religious penance	tâpa	tapas	J., S., Mak., D., and Bu. tapa.
Heaven	sûrga	svarga	J. suwarga; S. surga.
Hell	nâraka, patâla	naraka, pâtâla	J., S., Mak., and D. naraka; S. patala.
Fast, abstinence	puâsa	upavâsa	J., S., Mak., D., and Bis. puasa; Bat. puaso.
Supernatural power	saḳtî	çakti (strength, power)	J. and S. sakti.
Meritorious service, merit	baḳtî	bhakti (worship, devotion)	J. and S. bakti.
Sacred formula, charm, spell	mantrâ	mantra	J. and S. mantra.
Incense	dûpa	dhûpa	J., S., Mak., Bu., and D. dupa; Bat. daupa; Tag. dupa-an, censer.
Incense (made of eight ingredients)	istanggi	ashṭaka (a collection of eight things)	S. istanggi; Mak. satanggi.
Censer (a bamboo split at one end, and opened out so as to form a receptacle)	sangka	çaṅkha (conchshell used for libations)
Trumpet	sangkakala	çaṅkha (conchshell used for blowing as a horn), kala (time)
Protection, blessing, or invocation to secure protection	sempana	sampanna
Sati, self-sacrifice on the tomb of a lord or husband	bela	velâ (sudden death?)	J. and Bat. bela.
Recluse, devotee	biku	bhikshu (a religious mendicant)	Kw. wiku; Siam. phiku, a devotee, beggar.
Mystic words prefixed to prayers and invocations	Om, hong39	om (a mystic word prefacing all prayers); hum (a mystic syllable used in incantations)	J. hong.
Sacrifice, burnt-offering	hûmum	homa (sacrifice)
DEITIES, &c.
A god	batâra	avatâra (descent)	J., S., Bat., and Mak. batara; Bis. batala, idol.
Minor deity	dêwa, dêwâta	deva, devatâ	J. and S. dewa, dewata; Mak. dewa, rewata; D. dewa; Bis. dia, idol; Bat. debata; Bu. dewata.
Do. (female)	dêwî	devî	J., S., and Mak. dewi.
Names supposed by Malays to belong to powerful spirits or demons	Brahma	Brahma (one of the three principal Hindu deities)
	Bisnû	Vishnu (one of the three principal Hindu deities)
	Srî Râma	Râma (the hero of the Râmâyana)
	Ranjûna	Arjuna (the third son of Pandu)
	Barûna	Varuṇa (the deity of the waters)	S. Baruna.
	Mahêswâra	Maheçvara
	Handûman	Hanumant (the monkey chief in the Râmâyana)
	Mahareshî	Maharshi (a sage of a pre-eminent class)
Supernatural beings	Indrâ	Indra (king of heaven)	Kw. Endra; S. Indra.
	Chandrâ	Chandra (the moon)	J. and S. Chandra.
Nymph, goddess	Bidyâdârî	Vidyâdharî (a female demi-god)	J. Widadari; Mak. Bidadari.
DEMONS, &c.
Demon	jana, janu	jana (creature, demon)
Malignant spirit	bôta	bhûta	J. and S. buta; Mak. bota.
Name of a particular demon	pancha-maha-bôta	panchan (five); bhûta (element); the five elements according to the Hindus are earth, fire, water, air, and æther
A kind of demon	bôga	bhoga (a snake)
Name of a particular demon	bûjangga	bhujaṃga (a snake)	J. bujongga; S. bujangga.
An evil spirit	rakshâsa	râkshasa	J. and S. raksasa.
Ghost, goblin	hantû	hantu (death)	J. antu; Bat. and S. hantu; D. hantu, corpse.
Spectre (which haunts the scene of a murder or sudden death)	bâdei	vadha (killing, murder)
A female who chants incantations	bîdû, bidûan	vidhavâ (a widow)	Bat. biduwan.
Spell to cause death	permâya	pramaya (death)	Bat. parangmayo.
A demon	danâwa	dânava	J. danawa.
A daitya or demon	ditya	daitya	Kw. ditya.
A supernatural monster	gargâsi	karkaça (cruel), or perhaps, from ugra, very strong, terrible, cruel	J. gargasi, a large bird
Magic	sastarâ	çâstra (science, learning)
Magician, sorcerer	sastarâwan	çâstravant (skilled in the holy writings)