A Manual of the Malay language / With an Introductory Sketch of the Sanskrit Element in Malay

MALAY MANUAL.

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PART I.

The object of this work is to facilitate the acquisition of an elementary knowledge of the Malay language. It is believed also that some of the hints and suggestions which it contains will be of use to those who already have a colloquial knowledge of Malay, especially if this has been acquired from Indian or Chinese settlers in the Straits of Malacca, not from Malays themselves.

The Roman character is used throughout, but a knowledge of the native character can hardly be dispensed with by those who aim at a thorough acquaintance with the language. As it abounds in idiomatic expressions, the study of native compositions is most important, and these are generally to be found only in the Malay character. Little attempt is made at scientific arrangement. In dealing with the various parts of speech, technical terms are as far as possible avoided, and reliance is placed rather on illustrations than abstract rules. The student should divest himself of the expectation that sentences may be formed in Malay on principles of construction which govern composition in European languages. An elementary knowledge of Malay is so easily acquired that a learner soon begins to construct sentences, and the tendency, of course, is to reproduce the phrases of his own language with words of the new one. He may thus succeed in making himself intelligible, but it need hardly be said that he does not speak the language of the natives. Correctness of expression cannot be entirely learnt from grammars. In this manual cautions and hints will be given, and, where possible, absolute rules will be laid down, but these must not be regarded as complete. Instruction derived from books must be supplemented by constant practice in speaking with Malays—not with Malay-speaking Asiatics of other nationalities—before idioms can be mastered. Until some facility in framing sentences according to native idioms has been attained, and it has been perceived how shades of meaning may be conveyed by emphasis, or by the position of a word in the sentence, the European will find it difficult to convey his ideas in Malay, even with a considerable vocabulary of words at his disposal. A Dutch author justly remarks:— “Malay is called a poor language, and so it is, but not so much so as is often imagined, certainly not as far as its vocabulary is concerned. That it is often unable to furnish us with words for abstract ideas is a deficiency which it has in common with all languages of the Indian Archipelago, or rather with all races who have not yet risen to the height of our civilisation and development. Its richness or poverty, however, must not be judged by the existing dictionaries, or by the contents of those manuscripts which are known to us. When Malays are seated together talking about various topics of everyday life, they are not in want of words, and such conversations would, if noted down, provide our present dictionaries with a good many supplements, additions, corrections, and appendices.”1

I. THE ARTICLE.

There is no article in Malay, that is, there is no word which corresponds exactly with our definite article the, or indefinite article a, an. Kuda, horse, and orang, man, signify equally “the horse” and “the man.” When it is desired to specify particular objects, the pronouns ini, this, itu, that, and yang, this which, or that which, are used. Si sometimes supplies the place of the definite article when a person is spoken of; as si-laki-laki, the man; si-perampuan, the woman; si-mati, the deceased; si-bongkok, the cripple.

The numeral satu, one, is often used as the indefinite article; as ada sa’ orang di negri Kedah, there was a man in the state of Kedah; ini satu kuda chantek, this is a beautiful horse.

II. SUBSTANTIVES.

A difficulty which attends the classification of Malay words into various parts of speech, according to the system applied to European languages, consists in the number of words which, while yet unmodified by particles, are either verb or substantive, substantive or adjective, adjective or adverb, according to the context. Baniak, as an adverb, means much, as an adjective, many; jalan is either a road or to walk; panjang either long, tall, or length, height. The same thing occurs in English in a minor degree; but with us the difference between cold and a cold, or between to brush and a brush, is rendered distinct by the use of the article a and the particle to. Many Malay words must thus be treated as now substantive, now adjective, now verb, according to the position they occupy in the sentence.

The noun undergoes no change to denote number, gender, or case.

Number.

The plural, if not sufficiently made plain from the context, is often indicated by the use of such words as baniak, many, sumua, sa-kali-an, and sagala, all.

It is also expressed sometimes by repeating the noun; as raja, a king, raja-raja, kings; tuan, master, tuan-tuan, masters. All nouns are not capable of this duplication. As a general rule, it may be said to be mainly confined to nouns expressing persons or animate objects.

When there is nothing to show whether singular or plural is meant, the number remains indefinite, but may generally be assumed to be plural. In such phrases as menembak burong, to shoot birds, membĕli hayam, to buy fowls, the substantives are clearly plural, though nothing marks them as such. To restrict the number, and show that one bird or one fowl is meant, it would be necessary to use the word satu, one, with the idiomatic term ekor (lit. tail), which is always used in enumerating the lower animals; as menembak sa’ekor burong, to shoot a bird; membĕli sa’ekor hayam, to buy a fowl.

Gender.

Inflexion is unknown in Malay, and gender has no place in the grammar of the language. Most nouns which signify animate things are of both genders, and the sexes are distinguished by the addition, in the case of persons, of the words laki-laki, male, and perampuan, female, and in other cases of the words jantan, male, and betina, female. Jantan and betina are also applied vulgarly to persons. If an apparent exception is found in such words as putra, a prince, and putri, a princess, derivation from a foreign language may be suspected. The inflexion in the word just cited is due to the rules of Sanskrit grammar.

Declension.

There is nothing in the Malay language which corresponds with the cases of a Latin, Greek, or Sanskrit noun, which are formed by changes of termination, or of a Hindustani noun, which are formed by postpositions. In Malay the cases are expressed, as in English, by prepositions:—

To, ka, kepada, sama.
For, akan.
With, dengan, sama.
From, deri, deri-pada.
By, uleh.

The genitive or possessive case is expressed either by the use of the word punya after the noun, or by placing the noun which signifies the possessor immediately after the thing possessed; as sahaya, I; sahaya punya, of me, mine; rumah, house; rumah punya, of the house; sahaya punya rumah, or rumah sahaya, my house.

The employment of the genitive with punya is to be avoided. It is more idiomatic to say rumah sahaya than sahaya punya rumah.

Substantives are of five classes:—

1. Those which in their primitive form are substantives; as orang, person; rumah, house; kuda, horse; bapa, father.

2. Those which are formed from verbs by prefixing the inseparable particle pe; as pe-lari, a runaway; peng-asuh, a nurse; pem-buru, a hunter; pen-churi, a thief; penyapu, a broom.

3. Those which are formed by affixing the termination -an to verbs, adjectives, prepositions, and to other substantives; as makan-an, food; manis-an, sweetness; hampir-an, proximity; trus-an, a channel; buah-an, fruit in general; laut-an, the ocean.

4. Those which are formed by prefixing the particle pe and adding the termination -an; as pe-layar-an, a voyage; peng-ajar-an, instruction; pem-bunoh-an, slaying, execution; pen-dapat-an, acquisition; pel-ajar-an, lesson; per-uleh-an, possession; per-main-an, amusement.

5. Those which are formed by prefixing the particle ka- and adding the termination -an; as ka-jadi-an, creation, origin; ka-baniak-an, generality; ka-puji-an, praise; ka-salah-an, guilt, offence; ka-korang-an, want, deficiency.

III. ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives, like nouns, are indeclinable. They are always placed after their substantives; as kuda baik, a good horse; orang jahat, a bad man; not baik kuda, jahat orang.

IV. PRONOUNS.

The proper use of the personal pronouns and of the nouns which are used for them presents some difficulty.

The following words may be used to express the first person singular, I:—

The appropriate use of these pronouns is dependent upon the relative positions of the persons between whom communication takes place.

Aku is generally used by natives among themselves. Its use implies familiarity and equality. It should not be used by Europeans addressing natives, or by natives addressing Europeans.

Sahaya is the ordinary polite form used by Europeans in conversation with natives of all classes, and by natives of the upper class in addressing Europeans.

Ha ba, ha ba tuan, and perhamba are used by persons of inferior rank when addressing superiors. Hamba, if used by a chief or native of high rank, implies a certain affectation of modesty.

The use of beta is confined to literary composition, and it is incorrect to employ the word colloquially. It may be used by Europeans and natives.

Patek is used only by natives, and by them only when addressing a person of royal blood.

Tĕman is used only in intercourse between natives of the upper class and of approximately equal rank.

The first person plural is kita or kami, we. Kita is used when the person addressed is intended to be included. Kami, on the contrary, like the royal “we” in English, excludes the person addressed.

Sometimes the word orang is added without changing the signification; as kita orang, we.

Other forms are also in use, but they are generally provincialisms confined to particular states or districts. Sahaya apa, kita apa, and hamba tuan apa are used in Kedah, and sahaya-ma in Perak, for kita orang.

Colloquially the personal pronouns are often omitted to avoid repetition. This is done especially in narration or description; as, for example, in the following sentence: Lepas itu jalan pula ka-kampong singgah di rumah Haji Ismail hari pun sudah pĕtang langsong pulang ka-rumah maka nasi— Afterwards (I started) again (and) walked to the kampong, (and) stopped at the house of Haji Ismail, (and then), as it was evening, (I) went straight home (and) had my dinner.

Here the personal pronoun I is understood throughout.

The second person singular is angkau, you. Each syllable of this word may be used separately for the whole. Ang or hang is much employed in Kedah and Perak, and kau in other parts of the peninsula and in Borneo. In Perak mika, in Malacca awah, in Borneo kita, and in Batavia kweh, are also used. The preceding words are used by a superior addressing an inferior, or by the common people in ordinary (not in polite) conversation.

In polite conversation the use of angkau, or of most of the words given above, must be avoided, as it is considered by Malays to be vulgar or harsh. In addressing servants or followers, the name of the individual addressed is often inserted in the sentence instead of the pronoun you; as, in addressing Ismail: When you were at the bazaar just now who was with you?— Apabila Ismail di pekan tadi siapa sama? In the same way tuan, sir, master, is employed in addressing a haji or sayyid; tuan-ku or tunku, my lord, in addressing a raja; datoh, grandfather, in addressing a chief or penghulu.

Other words similarly employed are—

Abang (elder brother) or wah (uncle), to a man older than the speaker.

Kakak (elder sister), to a woman older than the speaker.

Adek (younger brother).

Inche (sir or madam), to respectable persons of either sex.

Examples.

The use of the word lu, a form of the second person singular, derived from the Chinese, and generally used by Europeans, is offensive to Malays of all classes, and is altogether to be avoided.

In the plural kamu, ye, corresponds to angkau, you, in the singular; that is to say, it is used by a superior addressing inferiors. It is found in its contracted form mu in literary composition, but seldom colloquially; as ka-tahu-i uleh-mu, be it known unto ye.

Kamu is sometimes used in the singular also.

Third Person Singular.

Dia or iya, he, she, it.

Dia and iya are used indifferently, but perhaps dia is more common in conversation and iya in literature.

The plural is dia orang (and sometimes, though less commonly, iya orang), they.

Another form of the third person plural is marika-itu, they, these, or those persons; but it is found in literary compositions only, and is not used in conversation.

A pronoun of the third person only used in conjunction with other words is -nia, a contraction of inia, he, she, it.

The indefinite form “one” (the French “on” and German “man”) is expressed in Malay by orang; as orang tiada bĕrani pergi sana, one dare not go there; kalau orang handak kawin, if one is about to marry.

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

The possessive pronouns, my, thy, his, our, your, their, are usually denoted by placing the personal pronoun after the word expressing the object possessed; as rumah sahaya, my house; pada pikir-an hamba, in my opinion; apa pen-chari-an angkau? what is your occupation? apa nama dia? what is his name?

Possessive pronouns are also formed by the word punya or ampunya (lit. owning, owned) placed after the personal pronoun; as aku punya, my or mine; tuan punya suka, as you please (your pleasure); yang ampunya tanah, (he) whose land it is.

Singular.	Plural.
My, mine, sahaya punya. Thy, thine, angkau punya. His, hers, its, dia punya.	Ours, kita punya. Yours, kamu punya. Theirs, dia-orang punya.

Frequently where the word “your” would be used in English Malays leave out the pronoun altogether. “Bring your gun with you,” would be correctly rendered in Malay, bawa snapang sama (lit. bring gun together), not bawa angkau punya snapang sama angkau.

In literary composition ku and mu (abbreviated forms of aku and kamu) are affixed to the noun denoting the thing possessed; as rumah-ku, my house; bapa-mu, your father.

The affix -nia is used in the sense of his, hers, or its, as well as the other forms of the possessive pronoun; as patah kaki-nia, his leg was broken; bauh-nia terlalu wangi, its smell is very sweet.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

Ini, this, these.   Itu, that, those.

The demonstrative pronouns, like adjectives, follow the word to which they belong; as rumah ini, this house; hari ini, this day, to-day; aku ini, I myself; sakarang ini, this moment; orang itu, that man or those men; waktu itu, that time; iya itu, that is to say. It is not unusual to hear ini and itu placed before the noun, but this is not idiomatic.

The INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS are

Siapa, who?   Apa, what?   Mana, who? what?

Examples.

The RELATIVE PRONOUN is

Yang, who, which.

Examples.

The Menangkabau word is nen. This is often found in composition, but is seldom used in the dialect spoken in the Straits of Malacca. Example: Patek nen fakir— I who am but a beggar.

REFLECTIVE PRONOUNS.

Diri, sendiri, or kendiri, self, are used with or without the personal pronouns to signify myself, yourself, himself, ourselves, &c.

Examples.

V. VERBS.

Verbs are either primitive or derivative; the former are those which in their original signification are verbs; the latter are formed from primitive verbs, or from substantives, adjectives, or adverbs, by the application of particles.

Examples of primitive verbs are pukul, to strike; makan, to eat; lari, to run; of derivative verbs, ber-kaki, to have feet, from kaki, a foot; panjang-kan, to lengthen or make long, from panjang, long.

The primitive verb, which is generally a dissyllable, is either transitive, as tangkap, to seize, or intransitive, as tidor, to sleep; but a transitive sense may be given to an intransitive verb by the addition of the particle -kan, as lari, me-lari, to run; me-lari-kan, to carry off.

Though the examples of primitive verbs given above are translated for the sake of convenience by our infinitive, their signification is not necessarily rendered by that mood. Favre translates them by the past participle (as ambil, taken, buang, thrown2), but this is rather fanciful than accurate. The fact is, that the meaning of the radical or primitive is indefinite, and depends for its precise signification on its position (with respect to other words) in the sentence, or on the particles which may be added before or after it. Thus lari means simply run, though syntax will show that it may mean to run, I run, he runs, run thou, &c., according to its position in the sentence.

Marsden distinguishes the following moods—the imperative, the indicative or assertive, the conditional, and the infinitive or indefinite—“which admit, for the most part, of being expressed in the present, the past, and the future tenses or times.”

It is not proposed, in an elementary work like the present, to go deeply into a scientific arrangement, which, however well suited to the Latin and Greek languages, is adapted with less propriety to uncultivated languages like Malay. It is believed that an explanation of the use of auxiliaries and particles, and a paradigm showing the most common changes of which the verb is susceptible, will be sufficient, and that the student may be left to gain further knowledge as to the mode of expressing variations of mood and tense as he advances in the study of the language.3

Use of Particles.

The inseparable affix -kan always denotes a verb used in a transitive sense; as men-jalan-kan, to cause to walk. It is an abbreviation of the preposition akan. Thus buat-kan (to do) means to do something to (akan) something or somebody.

The inseparable affix -i also denotes the transitive sense; as kras-i, to oppress (from kras, hard); halus-i, to treat carefully (from halus, fine, close).

The inseparable prefix ber- (bel-, be-) is the mark of a verb which expresses a state or condition of being; as ber-jalan, to walk, or to be in the act of walking; ber-wang, to have money; ber-misei, to wear moustaches; ber-pukul, to strike, i.e., to be in the act or condition of striking (not to strike another, transitive, which would be expressed by pukul- or me-mukul-kan).

The inseparable prefix me- (in all its various forms, mem, meng, men, and meny) is the mark of a verb which expresses an action; as men-jalan-kan, to cause to walk, mem-buat, to make; menyakit-kan, to afflict (from sakit); meng-ambil, to take.

According as the primitive verb has a transitive or intransitive sense, the derivative verbs formed from it will take ber- or me- as the case may be. Thus from adu, to sleep, is formed ber-adu, not meng-adu; while from adu, to complain, is formed meng-adu, not ber-adu.

Often both particles may be used, and both transitive and intransitive derivative verbs may be formed from the same primitive. Thus from taroh, to put, are formed menaroh, to put (the act of a person who puts), and ber-taroh, to bet (the condition of a person who stakes). From tidor, to sleep, are formed menidor-kan, to put to sleep, and ber-tidor, to be sleeping or lying down; and from ajar, instruct, meng-ajar, to teach (impart instruction), and bel-ajar, to learn (get instruction).

Mem-bawa, to bring, mem-bunoh, to kill, and me-makan, to eat, are formed from bawa, bunoh, and makan respectively, which, as they express actions, not states, do not take the prefix ber-. Ber-gantong is to hang (intransitive), that is, to be in a state or condition of hanging; meng-gantong-kan is to hang (transitive), that is, to perform the action of hanging something.

The particle per- (Sansk. pra), a prefix used with transitive verbs, does not seem always to effect a change in the sense. It is used more generally in literature than in the colloquial dialects, and seems to be introduced frequently for the sake of euphony only. The difference, for instance, between meng-himpun-kan, to assemble, to collect persons together, and mem-per-himpun-kan, to cause persons to collect together, is not very marked. No general rule applicable to all transitive verbs can be laid down for the use of this form with mem-per-; practice and experience must form the only guide.

Auxiliaries.

The auxiliary verbs and adverbs are—

PARADIGMS.

Tidor, sleep.

Lari, run.

Ada, be.

Bawa, bring.

Ambil, take.

Suroh, order.

The facts to be derived from a careful study of the foregoing examples may be summarised as follows:—

1st. The tense of the verb standing alone is indefinite. It may be present, imperfect, present or past, &c., according to the context; as dia ada, he is; tatkala sahaya ada di sana, when I was there; kalau sahaya ada dĕkat, if I am, should be, were, or had been near. This applies equally to the forms created by prefixing ber- and me-, mem-, men-, meng-, meny- to the radical. Examples: kita ber-jalan, we are or were walking; nanti sampei sahaya ber-balik, wait till I shall have returned; mati-mati ber-minyak, if you should use oil; raja meng-angkat kalmarin dahulu, the raja set out the day before yesterday.

2d. The Imperfect may sometimes be expressed by making the verb, followed by the particle -lah, precede the pronoun; as diam-lah dia orang, they were silent; maka pergi-lah raja kapada tuan putri, and the king went to the princess.

3d. Past.— Though the past may be expressed by the primitive verb, as shown above, if the context shows that the act spoken of is past, it is, nevertheless, more emphatically marked by the use of the auxiliaries sudah and tĕlah, has or had; as dia sudah tidor, he has gone to sleep; telah lari-lah pe-rompah sumua, the pirates have (or had) all run away.

4th. Future.— The verb standing alone may express the future when there is something in the sentence which indicates that a future tense is meant, such as the word “to-morrow” or “hereafter;” as esok hari kita ber-pĕrang pula, to-morrow we shall be fighting again.

The future is also expressed by the auxiliaries mahu and handak; as dia mahu jual, he will sell it; tiada mahu dia datang, he would not come; kapal handak masok sungei, a ship is about to enter the river; di-panggil-nia orang-besar-besar mushawarat handak di-buat meligei, he summoned the chiefs to consult about building a palace.

Another mode of forming the future is by the word nanti (lit. wait), placed, like the French verb aller, before the verb; as sahaya nanti chahari, je vais chercher, I am going to seek, or j’irai chercher, I shall go to seek.

The preposition akan, in order to, in order that, is sometimes used to convey the sense of the future; as penyakit itu tiada akan semboh, that disease is not to be cured; siapa akan tahu? who shall know? (= who can tell?); jikalau raja yang anyaya naraka akan tampat-nia, if a king is unjust hell will be his place hereafter.

5th. Imperative.— To convey an order or command the radical is used either by itself or with the affix -lah; kamu, thou, being either expressed or understood. The particle adds additional emphasis to the command. Examples: pergi, go; pergi-lah, be off, get away; ka-luar or ka-luar-lah, go out; ka-luar-kan-lah, take (it) out, or turn (him) out.

Mahu and handak with the affix -lah signify must; as mahu-lah kamu turut, ye must obey; handak-lah ayam yang puteh, there must be a fowl that is white, or, the fowl must be a white one; handak-lah segala pegawei raja itu duduk dengan adab dan diam, the king’s officers must sit with reverence and in silence.

The third person of the imperative mood, which we express by “let him,” may be rendered in Malay by the use of the word biar or biar-lah, with the verb in the manner shown by the following examples:— Biar-lah dia masok, let him come in; biar-lah aku mati, let me die.

6th. From many verbs are formed verbal nouns by prefixing the particle pe- (peng, pem, pen, peny) to the radical. This prefix operates like the syllable -er in such words as robber, purchaser, teacher; as churi, to steal; pen-churi, a robber; bĕli, to buy; pem-bĕli, a purchaser; ajar, to teach; peng-ajar, a teacher. Substantives of this kind and others formed from the verb with the particles ka- and -an have already been noticed under the head of the Substantive. But the form arrived at by prefixing to the simple verb the particle ka- and annexing the particle -an is not merely a noun, but, as Marsden says, “a gerund in form as well as in sense, being in fact a verbal noun infinitively applied in construction;” as, ka-dengar-an sampei Sayong, it was to be heard as far as Sayong; tiada ka-tahu-an, not to be understood; mata-hari tiada ka-lihat-an sebab ka-lindong-an-lah sayap-nia, the sun was not to be seen by reason of the shadowing of its wings.

7th. Passive.— In Malay the passive voice is denoted by the particle di- prefixed to the verb. The place of the nouns which express the agent and subject respectively will be understood from the following examples:—

Here the personal pronoun or other agent follows the verb and the subject precedes it.

Sometimes the preposition “by” finds an equivalent in Malay, the word uleh being expressed instead of being understood (as in the preceding sentences). Examples:—

The passive participle is formed by prefixing to the verb the inseparable particle ter-; as ter-pukul, struck; ter-tulis, written. When ter- precedes per-, one of the particles drops its final letter; as te-per-sayang, compassionated; ter-pe-lanting, sent flying.

Other forms of the Verb.— In the preceding paradigms generally those changes have been inserted which result from the application of inseparable particles. But there are moods and tenses of the English verb which are translatable in Malay, though they are not included above because they involve the use of other words, which, though united to the verb in construction, do not form part of it.

Conditional or Potential.— In expressing a conditional or potential sense the verb undergoes no change, though following such conjunctions as “if,” “provided that,” “in order that;” as jika tuan datang, if you come; kalau raja me-larang, if the king should forbid; dapat kami ber-untong, provided we are successful; sapaya jangan hamba kĕna rugi, in order that I may not incur a loss; agar sapaya anak-nia menjadi ‘alim, in order that his children may become learned.

Optative.— An optative sense is generally indicated by such words as apa-lah, apa-lah kira-nia, prithee, expressions of entreaty, or garangan, forsooth, conveying the notion of a doubt or query; as barang di-sampei-kan Allah apa-lah kira-nia, may God in his goodness cause it to arrive. But sometimes these are understood; as di-bri Allah kamarau sadikit, may God grant a little fair weather.

Participle Present.— Continuity or existing duration of action is often expressed by the use of such words as lagi, still more, sambil, seraya, and serla, whilst at the same time the verb remains unaltered in form; as lagi datang, coming; lagi tidor, sleeping or still asleep; ber-jalan sambil ber-sinnyum, walked on smiling; meniambah serta meniapu ayer mata-nia, made obeisance, at the same time wiping away her tears.

Tengah, half, middle, is often used with the verb in a similar way; as dia tengah makan nasi, he was in the act of eating his dinner.

VI. ADVERBS.

Adverbs in Malay are not distinguished by any prevailing termination corresponding to the English -ly or the French -ment. Many adjectives and some prepositions are used adverbially.

The following are some of the most useful adverbs:—

Adverbs of Time.

sakarang, now. tadi, just now. dahulu, before, formerly. sa’buntar, presently. bĕlum, not yet. pagi-pagi, early. esok, besok, to-morrow. kalmarin,4 yesterday. tatkala, sa-katika, when (relative).

kemdian, afterwards. pernah, ever. ta’pernah, never. sĕdang, while. kadang, sometimes. apa-bila, apa-kala, bila-mana, bila, when? (interrogative). kalmarin dahulu, the day before yesterday. lusa, the day after to-morrow. tulat, the third day from this.

Adverbs of Place.

sini, ka-mari, here. situ, sana, nun, there. mana, where, wherever (rel.). di-mana, where? (inter.). hampir, near, nearly. luar, outside. dalam, inside.

sabĕrang, across. jauh, far. atas, above. bawah, below. sabĕlah, beside. balik, behind. dĕkat, near.

Miscellaneous.

bagini, like this. bagitu, like that. bageimana, how? ya, yes. bukan, no, not.

sahaja, only. makin, so much the more. naschaya, certainly. tidak, no. tentu, certainly.

Adverbs expressing intensity will be found enumerated in Lesson 4.

Among the examples above given several are also prepositions, and will be found under that heading.

VII. PREPOSITIONS.

The principal prepositions of place and motion are di, at, in, on; ka, to, towards; deri, from. A great many so-called prepositions are formed from these three compounded with certain other words, such as:—

di-atas, on the top of. ka-atas, to the top of. deri-atas, from the top of. di-dalam, in the interior of. ka-dalam, to the interior of. deri-dalam, from the interior of. di-bĕlakang, at the back of. ka-bĕlakang, to the back of. deri-bĕlakang, from the back of. di-sabĕrang, on the farther side of. ka-sabĕrang, to the farther side of. deri-sabĕrang, from the farther side of.

di-bawah, at the bottom of. ka-bawah, to the bottom of. deri-bawah, from the bottom of. di-hadap-an, in front of. ka-hadap-an, to the front of. deri-hadap-an, from the front of. di-luar, at the outside of. ka-luar, to the outside of. deri-luar, from the outside of.

These twenty-one words are used like prepositions, and are often classified as such, but the true prepositions are the three initial words.

Atas, bawah, dalam, hadap-an, bĕlakang, luar, and sabĕrang here are really substantives governed by the prepositions di, ka, and deri. Some of these words aptly illustrate the difficulty of classifying Malay words according to the parts of speech usually recognised by grammarians. Dalam, for instance, has already been classified in the preceding section as an adverb. It is also substantive, adjective, and preposition.

In Malay a substantive in the possessive case immediately follows the substantive denoting the possessor (supra, p. 47). In the sentences bĕlakang gunong, the back of the mountain; hadap-an raja, the presence of the king; sabĕrang sungei, the farther side of the river, all the words are substantives, gunong, raja, and sungei being in the possessive case.

Now let the prepositions di, ka, and deri be added to these sentences.

Di-bĕlakang gunong, at the back of the mountain, may be more shortly translated behind the mountain; so ka-hadap-an raja may be rendered before the king, and deri-sabĕrang sungei from beyond the river.

Here, though the purport of the Malay phrases di-bĕlakang, ka-hadap-an, and deri-sabĕrang are correctly rendered by English prepositions, only the first portion of each phrase is a Malay preposition.

Of the remaining prepositions the following are the chief:—

pada, kapada, at, to, on, towards. deri-pada, from, than. akan, to, for, as to, as for. uleh, by. atas, on, upon. datang, sampei, hingga, until, as far as. antara, between. samantara, until. ganti, instead of. balik, behind. serta, with.

sama, with, to. dengan, with. dalam, in, into. lĕpas, after. karana, krana, sebab, on account of. sa-kadar, according to. demei, by. dĕkat, near. tentang, concerning, opposite. bagi, to. trus, through.

VIII. CONJUNCTIONS.

The following list includes the most useful of the conjunctions in Malay:—

dan, and. kalau, jika, jikalau, if. antah, kunun, perhaps. sapaya, in order that. pula, also, again. sambil, selang, whilst. seraya, at the same time. tambah-an, furthermore. karana, sĕbab, because. serta, and, also. asal-kan, provided that.

atau, or. tĕtapi, but. me-lain-kan, except. hania, but, except. yang, that. kĕlak, forsooth. juga, jua, also. sahaja, only. lagi, again, even. lagi pula, again, too. lagi pun, besides, also. saperti, as, like. laksana, bagei, like. iya-itu, that is to say. lamun-kan, although.

There are also a number of conjunctions which are met with almost exclusively in the written language, and which it would be pedantic to use in conversation. Of such are:—

IX. INTERJECTIONS.

The interjections in most common use are:—

hei! O! ya! O! (Arabic). aho! O! (Sansk.). aduh! aduhi! oh! alas! (pain, lamentation). niah! niah-lah! be off! begone! ai! wah! oh! alas! (astonishment or affliction).

ayo! ayohi! ah! (affection). cheh! fie! wayi! alas! demei Allah! by God! nah! there! take it! jum!6 forwards!

Many other words are used like interjections; such as kasi-han (lit. affection), what a pity! sayang (lit. concern), ’tis pity! alas! karam (lit. wrecked), woe to thee! me-rachun (may I be poisoned), no! (emphatic denial), &c., &c.

A number of Arabic expressions common to all Muhammadans in all parts of the world are used by Malays, such as In sháa-lláh, if it be the will of God; Alláhu a‘alam, God is all-knowing; Astaghfir alláh, I beg forgiveness of God; Wa-llahi and Wa-llah, by God! Yá rabb, O Lord! Bi-smi-llah, in the name of God! El-ḥamdu li-llah, praise be to God! Alláhu akbar, God is most great.

X. NUMERALS.

The numerals in Malay are exceedingly simple. The first ten are:—

From eleven to nineteen inclusive the numerals are formed from the digits with the termination bĕlas:—

Multiples of ten up to ninety inclusive have the termination puloh, ten:—

The intermediate numbers are formed simply by adding the units; as—

Above a hundred the numbers proceed with equal regularity:—

Any sum, however great, may be expressed by the numerals in juxtaposition without the insertion of a conjunction; as, sa-ribu-dĕlapan-ratus-tujoh-puloh-sambilan, one thousand eight hundred (and) seventy nine, 1879.

Certain terms for high numbers have been borrowed from the Sanskrit language and misapplied in adoption, namely, laḳsa (Sansk. laksha, 100,000), keti (Sansk. koṭi, 10,000,000), and juta (Sansk. ayuta, 10,000).

The numbers represented by these words in Malay are sa-laḳsa, ten thousand; sa-keti, one hundred thousand; sa-juta, one million.

In reckoning the numbers from 20 to 30, lekor, a score, is sometimes used instead of dua-puloh (especially in mentioning dates), but in that case the unit precedes instead of following the decimal; as sa-lekor, twenty-one; dua-lekor, twenty-two; tiga-lekor, twenty-three, &c.

To express a quantity which approaches what we call a round number, it is sometimes convenient to state the latter qualified by the figure in which it is deficient, as is done in the old-fashioned phrase “forty stripes save one.” Thus, instead of sambilan-puloh-dĕlapan, ninety-eight, the phrase korang dua sa-ratus, one hundred save two, may be used.

The use of the word tengah, half, before a numeral serves in the same way to reduce it by half of one. Thus, tengah dua signifies “one and a half,” or “two, less half a one,” as if the full phrase were korang sa-tengah dua; so tengah tiga-puloh, twenty-five (lit. “three tens save half”); tengah lima ratus, four hundred and fifty (lit. “five hundreds save half”).

Ordinal Numbers.

The word yang placed before ordinals corresponds to the definite article in English; as yang pertama, the first; yang ka-dua, the second; yang ka-sa-ribu, the thousandth.

Fractional Numbers.

Tengah, sa-tengah, half; suku, sa-suku, quarter; sa-per-dua, one-half; sa-per-tiga, one-third; dua-per-tiga, two-thirds; tiga-per-ampat, three-fourths. Similar fractions may be formed with other numbers by placing the particle per between the dividend and the divisor.

Collective Numbers.

Phrases like “a score,” “a dozen,” “a couple,” are formed in Malay by the use of the particle ber with the numeral; as—

The word ganda, which in Hindustani is a collective numeral meaning “a four,” is used in Malay in conjunction with numerals in a sense corresponding to the English word “times;” as dua-ganda, double, twice; tiga-ganda, triple, three times.

Numeral Co-Efficients.

In Malay, as in Burmese, Siamese, and Chinese, “there exists a set of specific and technical terms, called by the grammarians numeral affixes, some one or other of which is always used as a co-efficient to the numeral, the term being selected according to the class under which the object falls.”7 The use of these terms will be best understood by comparing it with the analogous use in English of such phrases as so many head of cattle; so many file of soldiers; so many sail of ships; so many stand of rifles.

1. Orang (person or persons) is introduced in the enumeration of mankind; as China tiga orang, Malayu sa’orang, three Chinese and a Malay; budak dua orang, two children.

2. Ekor (tail) is employed in speaking of animals; as sa-ekor kuching, a cat; kuda bĕlang dua ekor, two piebald horses; ikan kechil-kechil barang lima anam ekor, about five or six small fish.

3. Buah (fruit) is applied to fruit, houses, ships, places, &c.; as sa-buah rumah, a house; sa-buah nĕgri, a town or kingdom; lima buah kapal, five ships.

4. Biji (seed) is applied to small objects more or less round; as buah manggis lima-puloh biji, fifty mangostins; ampat biji telor, four eggs; nior muda sa-biji, one green cocoa-nut.

5. Halei or lei, to tenuous objects, such as hair, feathers, leaves, wearing apparel, &c.; as bulu sa-lei, a feather; kain Palembang sa-puloh halei, ten Palembang sarongs.

6. Batang (stem), to long objects; as lembing dua batang, two spears; tiang ampat batang, four posts.

7. Puchuk (young shoot), to letters, muskets, cannon, elephants’ tusks, &c.; as tiga puchuk surat, three letters; sa-puchuk gading, one tusk: snapang lima puchuk, five muskets.

8. Keping (piece, slice), to pieces of wood, metal, &c.; as papan sa-keping, a plank; timah tiga-puloh keping, thirty slabs of tin.

9. Tangga (ladder) and pintu (door), to houses; as rumah dua tangga, two houses; rumah batu anam pintu, six brick houses.

10. Lapis (fold), to clothing; as kapan sa-lapis, a shroud.

11. Rawan, to nets and cordage; as pukut sa-rawan, a seine net; jala dua rawan, two casting nets.

12. Bilah, to cutting weapons; as kris sa-bilah, one kris; pĕdang lima bilah, five swords.

13. Buntoh, to rings, fish-hooks, &c.; as kail sa-buntoh, a fish-hook; chinchin tiga buntoh, three rings.

14. Bidang, to things spread out; as destar sa-bidang, one head-cloth.

15. Butir, to fruit, seeds, and other small round objects; as nior sa-butir, a cocoa-nut; mutiara sa-butir, a pearl.

There are many other similar idiomatic terms, examples of which will be given in the more advanced lessons farther on.

XI. PARTICLES.

Most of the particles have been noticed in speaking of the verb, but there are three or four which require special mention.

Lah is affixed to words of all kinds, sometimes merely for the sake of euphony, but more frequently as a particle of intensity.

In the sentence ada-lah kapada suatu hari, it happened on a certain day, lah is simply expletive; but in the sentence dia-lah yang buat, it was he who did it, the particle serves to emphasise the word dia. The latter use of the particle lah is exemplified by its frequent employment to emphasise a command; as mari-lah, come; pergi-lah, go.

Kah is the interrogative particle. When affixed to words it is the sign of a question or a doubt; as itu-kah atau lain-kah? is it that or another? Antah sunggoh-kah atau tidak, it is doubtful whether it be true or not.

Tah is also an interrogative particle, but of less general use than kah. Apa-tah? what else? is a common phrase indicating assent.

Pun is annexed to all kinds of words, sometimes merely to give roundness to a phrase, sometimes with the sense of “too,” or “also” (where the sentence is affirmative), or “nor,” “neither” (where it is negative); as maka iya-pun datang, then he came; aku pun mahu, I too want it; siyang pun tidak malam pun tidak, it was neither day nor night.

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Part I: Footnotes