A Short History of Freethought Ancient and Modern, Volume 1 of 2 / Third edition, Revised and Expanded, in two volumes

The work traces the emergence and meaning of freethought, surveying its psychological roots and linguistic history before offering a global, period-by-period account. It considers early sceptical currents in primitive religion and in major ancient cultures—India, Mesopotamia, Persia, Egypt, China, and the Americas—then examines expressions of independent thought in Israel, Greece, and Rome. Subsequent chapters analyze tensions between reason and doctrinal authority in early Christianity and in Islamic intellectual traditions. Each chapter focuses on movements, sceptical and naturalistic tendencies, and the social and cultural forces that encourage or suppress dissent, outlining patterns of intellectual advance and decline.