CHAPTER VII
ILLUSTRATIONS OF LIFE IN THE SIXTEENTH AND
SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES
INTRODUCTORY NOTES
Hansards in London
Stow’s account of the Steelyard and the work of the Easterlings, is valuable for the history of trade. It exhibits the alien as the great importer, practically monopolizing the foreign trade with England up to the reign of Henry IV, and continuing to dominate it till Elizabeth ended their privileges. It also shows their relations with self-governing London, and in the whole story can be traced the working out of conditions which the English later applied to their own overseas enterprises. The status of Merchant Adventurers, East India Company, etc., as self-governing communities privileged to exist in a foreign country seems the precise reproduction of the Hansard in England, and often reproduced the same injustice for the native merchant. The report of R. Wynyngton’s capture of the Hansard fleet should be read in conjunction with this, and the position of the Hansards also compared to that of gilds of English merchants.
London Extracts
The enumeration of places, recently open country, serves to make vivid the part London was playing in the great increase of population and wealth due to the cloth industry, and the foreign adventures in trade of the Tudor period. The vivid Rembrandt picture of the night-watch suggests the utter darkness of the narrow mediæval lanes and alleys; while the regulations for rebuilding London give further suggestive details, e.g. shop-windows are still temporary, houses hitherto neither flush with one line of pavement nor of one height or style, and wood and thatch still prevail. The account of Skinner’s Well also emphasizes this period of transition from an age of intimate feudal relations between great and small, with its accompanying inequalities, to the more individualistic and mercantile relations of the modern world.
East Indies
Sir T. Roe’s embassy from James I to the Great Mogul (Jehanghir), gives the best account of that Indian court and government, and of the trade and position of the East India Co., still in its teens. The Portuguese, under Albuquerque, had created an empire in the Persian Gulf and Indian shores a century earlier. This had been challenged by Dutch traders, especially in the islands of the Indian Ocean and Malay Straits, who, in 1604, formed the Dutch East India Co. Persia had always traded with the Mogul Empire. Roe gives in this passage a valuable sketch of the relations of all five races, and lays down firmly the policy on which the English Company always hereafter insisted in theory, though constantly forced to abandon it in practice, namely that trade, and not territory, was their aim.
He also sets up the standard of honesty and honour in face of Oriental despotism, which British officials have always been expected to maintain. His statement, too, of the need of carefully selected presents, shows that the old practice seen in the Old Testament scriptures still existed in Asiatic negotiations. The Company’s servants found themselves from the first obliged both to give and to receive them, even despite the Company’s orders, and in 1773 “a talent of silver and two changes of raiment,” i.e. a Kelaat, was the recognized gift of the Mogul’s messenger.
The account of a “Court” meeting of the East India Company’s Committees in London gives a glimpse of the regular course of their work in dividing gains, etc., and has an especially interesting note of the way they conducted their relations with the King, their debtor, through the mediation of a famous courtier.
Captain Rannie’s evidence, as a Company’s military officer on the spot, is striking as showing how the struggle between Dupleix and Clive in the Carnatic had reacted by alarming the Nawabs of Bengal; and, again, in tracing their hostility further to the interference with trade and its dues, on which, perhaps as much as on land-dues, the ruler’s treasury depended. These were the grievances which caused our later troubles with Mir Jaffier and Mir Cossim, our own nominees, and they were not ended till Warren Hastings, with twenty years’ experience as a trader, came to govern and to reform them in 1773.
Life of T. Raymond
The chief value of these extracts lies in the insight they give into the domestic life of courtiers, of an ambassadors’ suite, of common soldiers and officers on campaign, of the utter ruin of the population at the seat of war. This is an interesting commentary on the condition to which most of the German states must have been reduced during the incessant campaigning of the Thirty Years’ War.
A Court Leet
Both the origin and name of courts leet is obscure; they were possibly survivals of the Anglo-Saxon hundred courts, seem to have a popular origin, and were certainly the courts in which review of Frankpledge was held, and other petty police work done.
Dugdale’s “History of Draining”
This is valuable for a picture of the gradual process by which England changed from the fen and forest condition in which the Romans found it, to the corn-producing country of to-day. The passages quoted deal with the draining of the area about the Wash, from which the sea had gradually receded, and which is known as the Great Level, or the Bedford Level. Dugdale wrote at the close of the Commonwealth period, and his review brings out the value of the monastic care of the drainage works up to the dissolution of the abbeys; also the fact that such undertakings as this requiring capital were managed by companies of Adventurers, exactly similar to those who took up colonization. The grants of land by which Bedford and his associates were repaid, are an instance of the way the members of such Companies grew to be the plutocrats who, in the eighteenth century, were able to control politics by the purchase of seats or of votes in Parliament. Bedford was the recognized head of a great party under George II and George III.
LONDON
THE HANSA LEAGUE’S HOUSE IN LONDON
(Stow, Book II, p. 202)
Next to [Cofin Lane] is the Stelehouse, or Steleyard (as they term it) a Place for Merchants of Almaine [German States] that used to bring hither, as well Wheat, Rye, and other Grain, as Cables, Ropes, Masts, Pitch, Tarr, Flax, Hemp, Linen Cloth, Wainscots, Wax, Steel and other profitable Merchandises. Unto these Merchants, in the Year 1239, Henry III at the request of his brother, Richard Earl of Cornwall, King of Almaine, granted that all and singular the Merchants have a House in the City of London, commonly called Guilda Aula Theutonicorum, should be maintained and upholden through the whole Realm, by all such Freedoms, and free Usages or Liberties, as by the King and in his noble Progenitors Time, they had enjoyed....
And in the 10th Year of the same Edward II Henry Wales being Maior, a great Controversie did arise between the said Maior and the Merchants of the Haunce of Almaine, about the Reparations of Bishopsgate, then likely to fall; for the said Merchants enjoyed divers Privileges, in respect of maintaining the said Gate, which they now denied to repair ... a Precept was sent to the Maior and Sheriffs, to destrain the said Merchants to make the Reparations.... And so they granted 210 Marks sterling to the Maior and Citizens and undertook that they and their Successors should (from Time to Time), repair the said Gate, and bear the third Part of the Charges in Money and Men to defend it when need were.
And for this Agreement, the said Maior and Citizens granted to the said Merchants their Liberties, which, till of late they have enjoyed; as, namely, amongst other, that they might lay up their Grain, which they brought into this Realm, in Inns, and sell it in their Garners, by the Space of forty Days after they had laid it up, except by the Maior and Citizens they were expressly forbidden because of Dearth, or other reasonable Occasions. Also they might have their Alderman, as they had been accustomed, foreseen always, that he were of the City, and presented to the Maior and Aldermen of the City, so oft as any should be chosen, and should take an Oath before them to maintain Justice in their Courts, and to behave themselves in their Office according to Law, and as it stood with the Customs of the City....
Their Hall is large, builded of Stone, with three arched Gates towards the Street, the middlemost whereof is far bigger than the other, and is seldom opened, and the other two be mured up: The same is now called the Old Hall. Of later time, to wit ... Richard II they hired one House next adjoining.... This also was a great House, with a large Wharf on the Thames. And the way thereunto was called ... Windgoose Alley, for that the same Alley is (for the most part) builded on by the Stilyard Merchants (p. 204).
About the time of King Henry IV the English began to trade themselves into the East Parts. At which the Easterlings, or Merchants of the Dutch Hauns, were so offended that they took several of their Ships and Goods.... The result of which in short was this, that the said King Henry IV did revoke Parts of the Privileges of the aforesaid Dutch Company as were inconsistent with the carrying on of a Trade by the Natives of this Realm: And ... grant his first Charter to the [English Merchants trading into the East Land].
In the first and second of Philip and Mary, was granted the Charter to the Russia Company afterwards confirmed by ... Queen Elizabeth. Until whose time, though the Trade of this Nation was driven much more by the Natives thereof, than had been formerly, yet had the Society of the Dutch Hans at the Steel Yard much the advantage of them by means of their well-regulated Societies and the Privileges they enjoyed. Insomuch that almost the whole Trade was driven by them, to that degree that Queen Elizabeth herself, when she came to have a War, was forced to buy the Hemp, Pitch, Tar, Powder, and other naval Provisions; which she wanted, of Foreigners: and that too at their Rates. Nor was there any Stores of either in the Land, to supply her Occasions on a sudden, but what at great Rates she prevailed with them to fetch for her, even in time of War: Her own subjects then being but very little Traders. To remedy which she fell upon the Consideration [of] encouraging her own subjects to be Merchants ... and cancelling many of the Privileges of the afore-mentioned Dutch Hans Society, the Trade in general by degrees came to be managed by the Natives of this Realm. And consequently the Profit of all these Trades accrued to the English Nation. Trade in general and English Shipping was encreased; her own Customs vastly augmented and, what was at first the great End of all, obtained, viz., that she had constantly lying at home, in the Hands of her own Subjects, all sorts of naval Provisions and Stores; which she could make use of, as her Occasions required them without any dependence on her Neighbours for the same. And thus by means of encouraging the ... Merchant Adventurers ... was the Trade at first gained from the Foreigners.... Then is one other great House ... which in the fifteenth of Edward IV was confirmed unto the said Merchants (p. 205).
In the year 1551 ... through Complaint of the English Merchants, the Liberty of the Steelyard Merchants was seized into the King’s Hands, and so it resteth.
CHANGES IN LONDON
(Stow, Book II, p. 1)
This great and populous City contains in the whole six or seven hundred Streets, Lanes, Alleys, Courts and Yards of Name, and generally very full of Inhabitants. Before the late dreadful Fire of London, the Houses within the Walls were computed to be about 13000; and that is accounted not a sixthe Part ... and in these late Years whole Fields have been converted into Builded Streets, ... as the great Buildings about the Abbey of Westminster, Tuthill Fields, and those Parts; Then the greatest part of St. James’ Parish, ... all the Streets in the Soho Fields,. .. also all Bloomsbury ... all Hatton Garden ... the Great and Little Lincoln’s Inn Fields, all Covent Garden ... etc., etc., and in the East and North Parts, the Spittle Fields, etc. All which were only Fields and Waste Grounds.
1598. (Ibid. p. 242)
In our Time ... other [Enormities] are come in place ... meet to be reformed. And first ... Encroachments on the High Ways, Lanes, and common Grounds, in and about this City....
Then the number of Cars, Drays, Carts, and Coaches, more than hath been accustomed (the Streets and Lanes being straightened), must needs be dangerous, as daily Experience proveth.
The Coachman rides behind the Horse Tails, lasheth them and looketh not behind him. The drayman sitteth and sleepeth on his Dray and letteth his Horse lead him home.
I know, that by the good Laws and Customs of this City, shod[28] Carts are forbidden to enter the same, except upon reasonable Causes (as the Service of the Prince, or such like) they be tolerated. Also that the Fore Horse of every Carriage, should be led by Hand. But these good orders are not observed.
[In the time of King Richard II] Anne, Daughter to the King of Bohemia ... first brought hither the riding upon side-saddles; and so was the riding in ... Whirlicotes and Chariots forsaken ... but now of late Years, the Use of Coaches brought out of Germany, is taken up and made so common, as there is neither Distinction of Time, nor Difference of Persons observed; for the World runs on Wheels with many, whose Parents were glad to go on foot.
CAUSES OF THE FIRE OF LONDON
(Stow, I, p. 227)
“Natural causes which might occasion such a general ruin.”
1. The Time of the Night when it first began, viz., between One and Two of the Clock after Midnight, when all were in a dead Sleep.
2. It was Saturday Night, when many of the most eminent Citizens, Merchants and others, were retired into the Country, and none but servants left to look to their City Houses.
3. It was in the Long Vacation ... when many wealthy Citizens and Tradesmen are wont to be in the Country at Fairs, and getting in of Debts, and making up Accounts with their Chapmen.
4. The closeness of the Building and Narrowness of the Streets, in the Places where it began [i.e., Pudding Lane] did much to facilitate the Progress of the Fire; by hindring of the Engines to be brought to play upon the Houses on Fire.
5. The Matter of which the Houses, all thereabouts, were; viz. Timber, and those very old.
6. The Dryness of the preceding Season; there having been a great Drought even to that very Day, and all the Time that the Fire continued, which had so dried the Timber, that it was never more apt to take Fire.
7. The Nature of the Wares and Commodities stowed and vended in those Parts, were the most Combustible of any other sold in the whole City: as Oyl, Pitch, Tar, Cordage, Hemp, Flax, Rosin, Wax, Butter, Cheese, Wine, Brandy, Sugar, etc.
8. An Easterly Wind (which is the dryest of all others)—had blown for several Days together before; and at that Time very strongly.
9. The unexpected failing of the Water thereabouts at that Time; For the Engine at the North End of Tower Bridge, called the Thames Water Tower (which supplied all that part of the City with Thames Water) was out of Order, and in a few Hours was itself burnt down, so that the Water Pipes, which conveyed the Water from thence through the Streets were soon empty.
10. Lastly: An unusual Negligence at first, and a confidence of easily quenching it, and of its stopping at several probable places afterwards; turned at length to a Confusion, Consternation and Despair; People choosing rather by Flight to save their Goods, than by a vigorous Opposition to save their own Houses and the whole City.
To all which Reasons must not be passed over the general Suspicion that most then had of Incendiaries, laying combustible Stuff in many Places, having observed divers distant Houses to be on Fire together. And many were then taken up on Suspicion.
THE REBUILDING OF THE CITY
(Ibid., p. 231)
Notwithstanding the extraordinary Losses by the forementioned Fire, the devouring Pestilence in this City the Year preceding, and the chargeable War with the Dutch at that Time depending yet by ... the Diligence and Activity of the Lord Maior, Aldermen, and Commoners of the said City (who were almost the only Losers by that fatal Accident) was in the Space of Four or Five Years well nigh rebuilded.
RULES AND DIRECTIONS TO BE OBSERVED IN THE REBUILDING
2. That there shall be only four Sorts of Buildings and no more; and that all manner of Houses so to be Erected shall be of one of those four Sorts of Building and no other.
The first and least sort of Houses, fronting By-streets or Lanes.
The second Sort of Houses, fronting Streets or Lanes of Note.
The third Sort of Houses, fronting high and principal Streets.
The fourth and last of Mansion Houses for Merchants, Citizens or other Persons of extraordinary Quality; not fronting either of those former Ways. And the Roofs of each of the first three Sorts of Houses shall be uniform.
3. That all the Outsides of all Buildings in and about the said City be henceforth made of Brick or Stone, or of Brick and Stone together.
5. That the Houses of the least sort of Building, fronting By-streets or Lanes, shall be of two Stories high.... The first Storey Nine Foot high from the Floor to the Ceiling; and the second Storey Nine Foot. That all Walls in Front and Rear (so high as the first Storey) be of the full Thickness of two Bricks at length; and upwards to the Garrets of the thickness of one Brick and a half; and the Walls at the Eves of the Garrets not to be less than one Brick.
9. And for the greater Grace and Uniformity of the Buildings in the high and principal Streets, it is Enacted, That all Houses hereafter to be erected in any of them shall have Balconies Four Foot broad with Rails and Bars of Iron, equally distant from the Ground....
10. That no Builder ... be permitted to lay his first Floor over the Cellar, more than 13 inches above the Street, or less than Six, with one circular Step to lead up thereto to be placed without the Building. And that no Trap Doors or Open Grates be in any wise suffered to be made into any such Cellar or Warehouse without the Foundations of the Front; but that all Lights to be made into any of them be henceforth made upright, and not otherwise. And that no Bulks, Jetties, Windows, Ports, Seats or anything of like Sort, shall be made or erected, in any Streets, Lanes, or By-lanes, to extend beyond the ancient Foundation of Houses ... it shall be lawful for the Inhabitants, to suffer their Stall-boards when their Shop Windows are set open to turn over Eleven Inches, and no more from the Foundation of their Houses into the Streets, for the better conveniency of their Shop Windows.
LONDON NIGHT-WATCHES
(Stow, ibid., p. 256)
Besides the standing Watches, all in bright Harness, in every Ward and Street in this City and Suburbs, there was also a marching Watch, that passed through the principal Streets thereof, to wit, from the Little Conduit by Paul’s Gate through West Cheap, by the Stocks, through Cornhill (etc., etc.), to Aldgate and up Grasse Church Street into Cornhill, and through into West Cheap again, and so broke up. The whole Way (measured) ... 3200 Taylors Yards of Assize. For the Furniture whereof with Lights, there were appointed 700 Cressets, 500 of them being formed by the Companies, the other 200 by the Chamber of London. Besides the which Lights, every Constable in London, in number more than 240 had his Cresset ... and every Cresset had two Men, one to bear or hold it, another to bear a Bag with Light, and to serve it: so that the Poor Men pertaining to the Cressets taking Wages, besides that everyone had a Strawen Hat, with a Badge painted, and his Breakfast, amounted in number to almost 2000. The Marching Watch contained in number about 2000 Men; part of them being old Soldiers, of skill to be Captains, etc., ... Drummers, Demi-launces on great Horses, Gunners with hand Guns, ... Archers in Coats of white Fustian, signed on the Breast and Back with the Arms of the City, their Bows bent in their Hands, with Sheafs of Arrows by their Sides, Pikemen in bright Corselets, ... Bellmen in Almain Rivets, and Aprons of Mail in great Number.
There were also divers Pageants, Morris Dancers, Constables, the one half of which was 120, on St. John’s Eve, the other half on St. Peter’s Eve, in bright Harness, some over Gilt, and every one a Jornet of Scarlet thereupon, and a Chain of Gold, his Hench Men following him, his Minstrels before him, and his Cornet Light passing by him: the Waits of the City, the Maior’s Officers, for his Guard before him, all in a Livery of Worsted or Sea Jackets, party-coloured; the Maior himself, well mounted on Horseback, the Sword Bearer before him in fair Armour, well mounted also; the Maior’s Foot Men, and the like Torch Bearers about him; Hench Men twain, upon great Stirring Horses following him.
WRESTLING AT SKINNER’S WELL
(Ibid., p. 257)
In the Month of August, about the Feast of S. Bartholomew the Apostle, before the Lord Maior, Aldermen and Sheriffs of London, placed in a large Tent near unto Clerkenwell, of old time were divers Days spent in the Pastime of Wrestling; where the Officers of the City, namely the Sheriffs, Sergeants and Yeomen, the Porters of the King’s Beam, or Weigh House (now no such Men) and other of the City, were challengers of all Men in the Suburbs, to wrestle for Games appointed. And on other Days, before the said Maior, Aldermen and Sheriffs, in Finsbury Field to shoot the Standard, broad Arrow and flight, for Games. But now of late Years, the wrestling is only practised on Bartholomew Day in the Afternoon, and the Shooting some three or four Days after, in one Afternoon and no more.
What should I speak of the ancient, daily Exercises in the long bow by Citizens of this City, now almost cleanly left off and forsaken? I overpass it. For by the Means of closing in of Common Grounds, our Archers for want of room to shoot Abroad, creep into Bowling Alleys, and ordinary Dicing Houses, near Home; where they have room enough to hazard their Money at unlawful Games, where I leave them to take their pleasures.
This was one of the great Uses of Publick Houses in former Time, namely for Game and Exercise rather than for drinking excessively....
Now a Days the Recreations of the Citizens, besides Drinking, are Cockfighting, Bowling greens, Tables, Cards, Dice, Billiard Tables, Musick Entertainments, Dancing, Masks, Balls, Stage Plays, Club Meetings in Evenings, Riding out on Horseback, Hunting with My Lord Maior’s Pack of Dogs, when the Common Hunt goes out; the Citizens having Privilege by their Charter to hunt in Middlesex, Hertfordshire, in the Chilterns, and in Kent as far as Gray Water.
The more common sort divert themselves at Football; Wrestling, Cudgels, Ninepins, Shovelboard, Cricket, Stowball, Ringing of Bells, Quoits, pitching the Bar, Bull and Bear baiting, throwing at Cocks.
THE USE OF ARMS. C. 1588
(Holinshed, II, 16)
“In times past, the chief force of England consisted in their long bows. But now we have in manner generally given over that kind of artillery.... But as our shooting is thus, in manner, utterly decayed among us one way: so our countrymen wax skilful in sundry other points as in shooting in small pieces, the caliver, and handling of the pike in the several uses whereof they are become very expert.
Our armour differeth not from that of other nations; and therefore consisteth of corselets, almain rivets, shirts of mail, jacks quilted and covered with leather, fustian, or canvas over thick plates of iron that are sewed in the same ... of which there is no town or village that hath not her convenient furniture. The said armour and munition is kept in one, several place of every town, appointed by the consent of the whole parish; where it is always ready to be had and worn within an hour’s warning.... Certes, there is almost no village so poor in England, be it never so small, that hath not sufficient furniture in a readiness to set forth three or four soldiers (as, one archer, one gunner, one pike, and a billman,) at the least. No, there is not so much wanting as their very liveries and caps; which are least to be accounted of, if any haste required....
Seldom shall you see any of my countrymen, above eighteen or twenty years old, to go without a dagger at the least, at his back or by his side; although they be aged burgesses or magistrates of any city, who, in appearances are most exempt from brabbling and contention.
Our Nobility commonly wear swords or rapiers, with their daggers as doth every common serving man also that followeth his lord and master. Finally no man travelleth by the way, without his sword or some such weapon, with us; except the Minister who commonly weareth none at all, unless it be a dagger or hanger at his side.”
Rev. W. Harrison, B.D.
THE EMBASSY OF SIR THOMAS ROE
(The Embassy of Sir Thomas Roe to the Court of the Great Mogul, 1615-19. Ed., W. Foster. Vol. II; Hakluyt Society, pp. 342-5).
LETTER TO THE EAST INDIA CO., 24 NOV., 1616
... Your residence you need not doubt as long as you tame the Portugall ... he only can prejudice you. For a Fort, at my first arrival I received it as very necessary; but experience teaches me we are refused it to our advantage. If he [Jahangir] would offer me ten, I would not accept one. First, where the river is commodious, the country is barren and untraded.... Secondly the charge is greater than the trade can bear; for to maintain a garrison will eat the profit.... A war and traffic are incompatible. By my consent, you shall no way engage yourselves but at sea, where you are like to gain as often as to lose. It is the beggaring of the Portugall, notwithstanding his many rich residencies and territories, that he keeps soldiers that spend it; yet his garrisons are mean. He never profited by the Indies since he defended them. Observe this well. It hath been also the error of the Dutch, who seek plantation here by the sword. They turn a wonderful stock, they prowl in all places, they possess some of the best; yet their dead payes consume all the gain. Let this be received as a rule that if you will profit, seek it at sea, and in quiet trade; for without controversy it is an error to affect garrisons and land wars in India. If you made it only against the naturals [natives] I would agree....
... The road of Swally or the Port of Surat are fittest for you in all the Mogul’s territory.... You need no more; it is not number of ports, factories and residences that will profit you; they will increase charge but not recompense it.... The commodities you sell pass best in that quarter. The goods you seek being principally indigo and cloth (calicoes).
For the settling your trafique here, I doubt not to effect any reasonable desire. My credit is sufficient with the King [great Mogul], and your force will alway bind him to constancy.... But you must alter your stock. Let not your servants deceive you; cloth, lead, teeth [ivory], quicksilver are dead commodities and will never drive this trade. You must succour it by change....
Articles of treaty on equal terms I cannot effect: want of presents disgraced me. But yet by pieces I have gotten as much as I desired at once. I have recovered all bribes, extortions, debts made and taken before my time till this day; or at least an honourable composition. But when I deliver the next gifts to the Mogul.... I will set on anew for a formal contract.... Concerning private trade, [of the Company’s servants] my opinion is you absolutely prohibit it and execute forfeiture, for your business will be the better done. All your loss is not in the goods brought home. I see here the inconveniences you think not of. I know this is harsh to all men and seems hard; men profess they come not out for bare wages. You shall take away the plea if you resolve to give very good to men’s content; then you know what you part from. But you must make good choice of your servants and use fewer.
Note of Goods for Presents
Table knives, swords, gilt armour, precious stones, cloth of gold, looking glasses, arras, pictures, wines (strong waters are unrequested now), dogs, ostrich plumes, silk stuffs (“but no blue, it is the colour of mourners”) and generally any rare knack to please the eye.... (p. 356).
LETTER TO MASTER SECRETARY WYNWODE, NOV. 30, 1616
“The trade is profitable and fit for England, but no way understood by the Company how to effect it at best advantage.... I assure your Honour it is not fit to keep an Ambassador in this Court. I have shuffled better out and escaped and avoided affronts and slavish customs clearer than ever any did. I am allowed rank above the Persian, but he outstrips me in rewards; his Master lies near us. But His Majesty commanded me to do nothing unworthy the honour of a Christian King, and no reward can humble me to any baseness” (p. 358).
EAST INDIA COMPANY COURT MINUTES
(Court Minutes of the East India Company, 1635-1659. Ed. E. B. Sainsbury: Oxford University Press, p. 183)
A COURT OF COMMITTEES, AUGUST 4, 1641
Nathaniel Hawes transfers to Robert Freeman 942l. 10s. adventure and profits in the Third Joint Stock, (subscribed in 1631) ‘the principal being divided.’
The Court, understanding that 438 bales of Legee silk, 50 bales of Ardas, and 39 of Mazandran were returned in the (E.I.C.s’ ship) Crispian, directs that each adventurer shall receive for his division five-sixths in Legee, and one-sixth in Ardas or Mazandran and desires three Committees to oversee the delivery of the said divisions.
Captain Stiles is desired to go aboard the Hopewell and give directions for all her lumber, guns and ordnance to be put ashore, all private trade to be sent up to the Custom House, and nothing more to be unladen until further order.
The Governor opines that as the year is passing, the generality should be called together about a new subscription for a Particular Voyage for this year; after some debate it is resolved to await the King’s recommendation upon the Company’s petition to Parliament for renewal of its charter. The Court decides to present Sir Harry Vane, who is and always has been ready to assist the Company on all occasions, with ‘fifty pieces.’
Mr. Ashwell to be paid for the looking glass he sent to Bantam. Mr. Stiles reports that he has been offered 4l. 10s. per ton for the defective ordnance, 10s. per ton more than the last was sold for; and is told to use his own judgement in this matter. John Gearing, his son John, and Richard Crawly are accepted as securities for cloves. The estate of the late William Fall, a factor in Persia, to be paid to his executrix. Certain Committees are desired to hear the difference between Mrs. Powell and Thomas Clarke who lately returned from India.
YOUNG COURTIER’S LIFE IN LONDON, C. 1630
(Autobiography of Thomas Raymond. Ed. G. Davies. Camden Series III, Vol. 28, p. 26)
I was taken from the Citty, where I expected to be planted, and brought to Courte, attending my unkle, whoe grew so rigorous that my life thereby became very unpleasant, and leaving the Citty for the Courte I was with the proverbe fallen out of the frying pan into the fier. Long waiting and short meales, sometimes cutt wholly out at my first coming by the voracity and nimbleness of the courtiers, and if by chance I was necessitated to make to our lodgings for dynner, I was sure to be entertayned with a look and words would almost fright the devill. But after a while by getting courage and acquaintance I made partly shift abroade, choosing rather to fast then go home and be rated. I remember my aunt was one day seemingly very importunate with a good neighbour woman, whoe came to visit her, to stay and dyne with hir. Whereupon my aunt called to hir mayde, “Nan sett on the whole rash of mutton,” which the good woman hearing tooke occasion to break away, haveing a farre better dynner at home.
Another tyme there was boyling on the fier in my unkle’s chamber a pipkin of pease pottage, and a Lord comeing to him unexpectedly on the sudden aboute business, with stifling aboute least the pipkin should be seene it was throwne downe, broke, and all the porridge aboute the chamber—a woefull disaster to my aunt for the losse of hir belly tymber, and to my unkle least the Lord should have taken us in our cookery and misfortune. But the Lord was encountered before he could perceive the mischeife, a miscarriage that often made me laugh heartily. Our lodgings were in a little straight howse built in a corner on the lefte hand as soon as you are out of the East door of Westminster Abbey, bellonging to one of the vergers of the Church, and is since demolished. My chanber was just under there, high towards on pynacle of the Abbey, and in rayney or wyndy nights there would fall downe upon the leades of the roofe of my chanber such huge pieces of freestone (those parts of the Church being much decayed and dayly decaying) that I often tymes thought I should be knocked on the head before morning. My unkle, being wondered at and sometymes laughed at for the place of his lodgings ... had a story to defend it....
Our remove from these lodgings was to Whitehall, and there in the third story of the first greate stone gate passing towards King strete where are kept the papers of state, whereof my unkle was now one of the clerkes and keepers. And here my condition was somewhat better ... that I was saved from the feare of being brayned in my bed, and only my legs had here the worst ont by mounting soe high soe often in the day.
PRIVILEGES OF AMBASSADORS, C. 1635
(Raymond, p. 57)
VENICE
The persons and howses of ambassadors are by the lawes of all nations sacred, and in this place as much as anywhere. Not only their howses are privileged but a considerable distance from them, within which no officer of justice must presume to come to follow or fetch away any offender that flies thither. And these priviledges are often abused by the attendants of ambassadors, whoe are too ready to protect offenders against the lawe. There stood very nere our Pallace a little howse into which certayne offenders had fledd, and there not only sheltred themselves, but contrary to the lawes of the place kept dicing and carding. Complaint was made thereof to the ambassador, that he would either cause them to be delivered to the justice or chase them from thence. But the ambassador, possibly by meanes of some of his servants, turned the deaf eare to their just requests, whereupon, after some waiting the ambassador’s answers, in the dead tyme of night came the bargello with his men, and tooke these fellows out of their beds, and carried them to prison. And well for us it was that it was done when we were all asleepe, otherwise wee must have defended our priviledges, though to the great endangering of our own lives and those officers. This bred a great difference between the State and my lord ambassador, who said the howse was his, and that the officers had violated the laws of nations by this proceeding, craved the persons taken out of the howse should be returned thither and the bergello and his officers severely punished for their impudence, etc. This matter proceeded to that height that the ambassador was ready to quitt the place, and a rupture between England and the Republick like to follow, but was at the last with much ado composed to the honour and satisfaction of the ambassador and the Republick. In the agitation of which business, being very hott on both sides, the King himselfe, good King Charles, did write once or twice to my lord ambassador with his owne handd, in which appeared his greate prudence and noe small affection for the person of the ambassador. (Basil, Lord Feilding).
EXPERIENCES OF A SOLDIER
(Raymond, p. 73)
FLANDERS, A.D. 1633
I observed how briske and fyne some English gallants were at the beginning of this campagne, but at the latter end ther briskenes and gallantry soe faded and clowdy that I could not but be mynded of the vanity of this world with the uneasiness of this profession. And truly, by what I have seene and felt, I cannott but thinck that the life of a private or comon soldier is the most miserable in the world; and that not soe much because his life is always in danger—that is little or nothing—but for the terrible miseries he endures in hunger and nakedness, in hard marches and bad quarters, 30 stivers being his pay for 8 days, of which they could not possibly subsist, but that they helpe themselves by forraging, stealing, furnishing wood in the feild to the officers, straw, some are cobblers, taylers, etc. Straw is ready money, especially at first comeing to new quarters. I remember at one place I saw a couple of soldiers that had found a little howse filled with strawe. One of them kept the dore whilst the other carried out the strawe by bunches to sell. Other soldiers came and would have part: these withstood them. At last others fell to chopping of the 4 corner posts, soe in a short tyme downe fell the howse and soe the strawe grew comon. It is hardly to be thought the devastation that an army brings into a countrie, and the hangers on of the army doe most of the mischeife. They march in no order, carry hookes by which they search wells and ditches for pewter or brasse that the poore countrie people have sunck to preserve them from the soldiers. Other places they dig up where they suspect anything to be hid, torturing the poore people to make them confesse, etc. Sometymes we came to a goodly feild of corne, which within a few minutes is trod flatt, to the very ground: faire howses unthatched, all the plancher and wood work chopped downe if not fyred, pleasant orchards and walkes of trees in an instant chopped downe by the ground, etc. It pittyed me at one place where we marched by a poore little howse, to which joined a little close of about an acre with bush. The poore woman came out, felled on hir knees, and holding up hir hands, praying the soldiers for Christ Jesus’ sake to spare hir cropp. Twas all, she sayd, that she and hir poore children had to live on all the yere, makeing lamentable outcryes, but all to noe purpose. For, though there was forrage enough just by, with in a few minutes all this poore creatures crop was wholly destroyed.
A TREATISE ... CONCERNING ... THE METHOD FOR KEEPING A COURT LEET
(By John Wilkinson, of Bernard’s inne, gent., London, 1638)
(From Court Rolls of the Honor of Clitheroe. Ed., W. Farrar, pp. xiii-xviii)
[Extracts]
Affrays and Bloodsheds
... You shall therefore first inquire if any man within your inquirie haue broken the peace, or made any affray or bloodshed. If any haue offended herein, you must present him or them, and the manner of it, with what weapon, for that it is forfeit to the Lord of this Leet, and the offender or offenders are to be fined for such offence.
Rogues
These persons by particular are said to bee by the Statute rogues, viz., Proctors of Spittle houses, Patent gatherers, or Collectors for Gaoles, prisons or Hospitals, Fencers, Bearwards, common Plaiers of enterludes, Minstrels wandering abroad, Glassemen, Saylers, Souldiers, Schollers, and all other idle persons which goe about begging.
Stocks
Also for the punishment of these offenders, you shall inquire if there bee in euery tything a paire of stockes, according as there ought to bee by the Statute, or no: if there bee not, then the tything doe lose V pounds.
Artillery (33 H. 8. ca. 9)
Also you shall inquire whether eueryone haue Bow and Arrowes according to the Statute, or no: for euery man child from seven yeeres old to seuenteene ought to haue a Bow and two Arrowes, and euery man from seuenteene to three score ought to haue a bow and foure arrowes, vpon paine of vjs viijd for euery default: and parents ought to provide them for their children and masters for their seruants with their wages, or else they ought to undergoe the penaltie thereof.
Butts, 33 H. 8
And also that for the exercise of Archers in shooting at times convenient, there ought to be buts made in euery Tything, Village, and Hamlet, or else the Tything, Village, or Hamlet ought to lose xxs, for euery three moneths wanting Butsthere.
Plays or Games, 33 H. 8
Also you shall inquire if any Alehousekeeper or other person do keepe any unlawfull games in his or their house or houses, or elsewhere, as cards, dice, tables, loggets, quoits, bowles, or such like: in this case the house keeper loseth for euery day forty shillings, and every player vj viij for euery time.
Also Constables ought to search monethly for such unlawfull games and disorders in alehouses vpon paine of fortie shillings, and they may arrest such as they find playing at unlawfull games, and commit them to ward vntill they put in sureties not to play any more at any vnlawfull game. No man may play at any vnlawfull game insatiably, unless hee can dispend C pounds per annum in lands, fees, or offices, for life at the least: and hee may not play neither in any open place where euery one that will may see him, but in his house, or in his Orchard or Garden, vpon paine of vj viij for euery time. Except in the Christmas time; for then all men may play.
Shooting in Guns, 33 H. 8, ca. 6
Next you shall inquire of such as shoot in hand gunnes or cross bowes; for no man may shoot in them vnlesse hee can dispend C pounds per annum in lands, tenements, officers, annuities, or fees, neither may those shoot at any Pheasant, Partridge, Herre, Duck, Mallard, Housedoue, Pigeon, Wigeon, Teale, or Heathcock, vpon paine of x pounds for euery shoot.
Highways
Next you shall inquire whether your high waies bee sufficiently amended and made passable, as they ought to be, or no; for to that end and purpose there ought to be two Superuisors chosen in euery Parish, between Easter and Midsomer, by the Constables and Church wardens; and there ought to be six days appointed for amending of highwayes, eight houres eury day, vpon paine of xxs to bee lost by the Superuisors. And every one that hath a cart to send two able men with it, with tooles fit for that seruice, or else to lose twelve pence for euery day wanting. And they ought most chiefly to amend the wayes leading to Market Townes; and they may gather stones in any man’s grounds, and also digge pits of ten yards square in any man’s seuerall for stones and rubbish (if it be needful), filling the same vp againe, without danger of Law. And they must turne springs, if they can, out of the high wayes; and trees and hedges which hang ouer the King’s high wayes must be cut and shredded, vpon paine of xs for euery default.
Purprestures and Assarts, 18 Eliz. 2
Next you shall inquire of Purprestures and Assarts, and that is where any Wall, Hedge, Ditch, or House is set, leuied, or abated in the King’s Highway, or any watercourse stopped or turned into the highway, to hinder the passage of the King’s subjects, or any way annoy them.
Bounds and Marks
Also you shall inquire whether any mearestones or stakes bonds or markes, betweene this Lordship and any other, or betweene tenant and tenant, hath bin remoued since the last law day, or before, and not set in the vsual place again: if there be any which haue offended herein, you must present them.
Highways or Footsteps (Footpaths)
Also if any high wayes or footpathes to Church, Mill, or Market bee stopped or hedged vp, which haue beene accustomed to lye open, you must present him or them which shut it vp, for the King’s subjects must not be stopped of his lawfull passage to Church, Mill or Market.
Common Bridges Broken
Also if any Common Bridges ouer Common Streames bee broken, that by reason thereof the King’s subjects cannot pass about their affaires and businesses, you must present those which ought to make them, vpon a paine.
Common Pounds Broken
And also if common pounds bee broken, so that they will hold no distresse that is brought to them untill they bee deliuered thence by order of law, you must present those which ought to make such pounds, vpon a paine.
Sleepers by Day and Walkers by Night
Also you shall inquire of Sleepers by day, and walkers by night, to steale and purloine other men’s goods and Conies out of Warrens, Fish out of men’s seuerall Ponds or Waters, Hennes from Henhouse, or any other thing whatsoever, for they are ill members in a Common wealth, and deserue punishment: therefore if you know any such, present them.
Eavesdroppers
Also you shall inquire of Eues droppers, and those are such as by night stand or lye harkening under walles or windowes of other men’s, to hear what is said in another man’s house, to the end to set debate and dissension between neighbors, which is a very ill office: therefore, if you know any such, present them.
Forestallers, Regraters and Ingrossers
Also you shall inquire of Forestallers, Regraters, and Ingrossers, euill members in a Commonwealth.
A Forestaller is hee which buyeth or causeth to be bought any victualls whatsoeuer going to any Faire or Market to bee sold, and maketh any bargaine for the buying thereof before the same bee brought into the Faire or Market, or doth make any motion for the inhancing of the price of any victuals, or doth mooue or perswade any person comming to the Faire or Market with victuals, to absent and forbeare his comming thither with any victuall to be sold there.
Regrator is hee that getteth into his hands in any Faire or Market any Corne, Tallow, or Candles, or any dead victuall whatsoeuer, brought to any Faire or Market to be sold, and doth sell the same againe in any Fair or Market, within foure miles next adioyning thereunto.
An Ingrosser is he or she that doth ingrosse and get into his or her hands, by buying or promise taken, other than by demise, grant, or lease, of bonde or bill of Corne growing in the Fields, or any other Corne, Graine, butter, Cheese, Fish, or any other dead victuall whatsoeuer to the intent to sell the same again for profit.
For the first offence they ought to haue two moneths imprisonment, without bail or mainprise, and forfeit the value of the goods bought and sold.
For the second offence they ought to haue halfe a yeeres imprisonment, and to forfeit double the value of the goods bought and sold.
And for the third offence they ought to be set vpon the Pillorie, and to lose all their goods and chattels, and bee imprisoned during the King’s pleasure.
Butchers
No butcher ought to sell in any open Fair or Market any other victuall then that which is good and wholesome for man’s body, and for reasonable gaines, and not at excessive prices.
Shoemakers
They ought to make their Shooes and Bootes of good and well tanned Leather, and well licoured, curried, and sowed, to keep men dry of their legges and feet.
Tanners
Also you shall inquire of Tanners that haue vsed the occupation of a Cordwainer or a Currier, or that hath put any leather to sale, but red Leather as it came from the Tanne fatte, or that hath put any Hide or peece of Leather to sale, before it be well dryed, marked, and sorted, and then sold in open market, or that hath tanned any sheep-skins.
Bakers
Also you shall inquire whether the bakers doe their duties or not, in making of good and wholesome bread for man’s bodie, of sweet corne and not corrupted, and that they make their Bread in weight according to the price of wheat in three markets next adioyning, not changing the assise of Bread, but by six pence in weight in increasing or abating; and if they doe the contrarie, and be thereof duly conuicted, then for the first, second, and third time they shall bee amerced after the quantitie of their fault, and shall lose from time to time their bread so found too light in weight; but if they shall bee found faultie herein the fourth time, then they must be set vpon the pillorie in open market, whose punishment may not be released for gold or silver.
Also a baker must set his own proper marke vpon euery loafe of bread that hee maketh and selleth, to the end that if any bread be faultie in weight, it may be then knowne in whom the fault is.
Brewers, 5 H. 3. 51 E. 3
Also you shall inquire of Brewers and Typlers whether they make good and wholesome ale and beere for man’s bodie, or not, and sell and utter the same according to the lawes and statutes of this Realme. And also they ought not to put out their signe or ale stake until their ale be assayed by the ale taster, and then to sell and not before.
Fishers, 25 H. 8 ca. 7. 31 H. 8. ca. 2
Also you shall inquire of Fishers whether they doe their duties or no, in bringing to the Market such fish as is good and wholesome for man’s body, and not corrupt or stinking, and there sell the same at reasonable prices, without taking of any excessiue gains, but onely for euery twelue pence bestowing one penny cleere gaines ouer and beside their charges; and if any Fisher shall doe the contrarie, then he shall be grievously amerced from time to time, and his Fish, if it be corrupt and stinking, to bee taken from him and openly burned in the Market.
Also no man ought to fish with any Net, or Engine, angling onely excepted, but with such Net or Trannell as euery mesh shall be two inches and a half wide, except Nets onely to take Loches, Mennas, Bulheads, Gudgions, eeles, and none other Fish, vpon paine of XXs for euery time offending, and losse of the fish and the unlawfull Net.
False Weights and Double Measures, 51 E. 3
Also if any within your inquirie shall vse any false Weights or double measures in deceiving of the King’s subjects in buying with a great measure, and in selling with a lesse, the offender therof therein shall be grieuously punished and imprisoned vntill he hath made fine with the King for his offence.
No man ought to sell any corne, ale bread or wine but by a measure sealed with this letter H., vpon paine of forfeiture for the first offence, 6s. 8d., for the second offence, 13s. 4d., and for the third offence twenty shillings, and to bee set on the pillorie, to the example of others, and the measure not sealed to be broken, all which forfeitures are to the Lord of the Libertie where such offence is committed, and if it be in a citie or borough, then it is to the maior and communaltie.
Hunting Dogs
No Lay man may lawfully keepe any Greyhound or Hunting Dogge, Ferrits, or Nets, vnless he can dispend fortie shillings per annum, Freehold: nor no Spiritual man, vnlesse hee can dispend ten pound per annum of spirituall promotion, vpon paine of a yeares imprisonment.
Drunkards
Also you shall inquire of Drunkards, for they ought to bee presented and to pay if they be able for euery time they bee drunke Vs to the vse of the poore of the Parish where the offence is committed; if not able, then after connuiction thereof they ought to sit six houres in the Stockes.
Waifs, Strays and Felon’s Goods, 18 E.2
Also you shall inquire of waifes, strayes, and felon’s goods. Waifes are Cattell stolne and weiued out of the possession of him that stole them, and straies are Cattell straied out of their haunt, and they ought to be seised vpon to the Lord’s vse, and to be wreathed and put into an open place, and not in a couert, to the end the owner may have the view of them, and they must be cryed at three market towns next adioyning to the place where they are straied; and if they be not challenged within a yeare and a day, then they belong to the Lord of the soile where they are, by the Law, otherwise not.
Which is all manner of felon’s goods which may (presently) after the felonie is knowne to be committed, be seized vpon, but not taken away, but left with the towneship, for the felon must haue his finding out of it so long as he liues vnconuicted or attainted; but when he is conuicted or attainted, his goods they properly belong to the Lord of the Leet, if he have words for it in his Charter, otherwise they belong to the King.
Treasure Trove
Also you shall inquire of Treasure troues, either vpon the ground or within the ground: for if any hath been found within the jurisdiction of this Court, it belonged to the Lord of this Leet or Law day.
And to conclude, if there shall any other thing come to your knowledge meete to bee presented, and by any omitted to bee giuen in charge, you shall as well inquire thereof and present it as the rest.
DRAINING OF THE FENS
(Dugdale, History of Imbanking and Draining, p. 375)
It hath been a long received opinion, as well by the borderers upon the Fens as others, that the total drowning of this Great Level (whereof we have in our times been eyewitnesses) hath for the most part, been occasioned by the neglect of putting the laws of sewers in due execution in these latter times; and that before the dissolution of the monasteries by King Henry VIII the passages for the water were kept with cleansing, and the banks with better repair, chiefly through the care and cost of those religious houses.
... but wholly to clear them was impossible without the perfect opening and cleansing of their natural outfalls.... In order whereunto the first considerable attempt ... was in 20 Eliz. the Queen then granting her commission to Sir Thomas Cecil, Sir W. Fitzwilliams, Sir Edward Montague and Sir Henry Cromwell, Knights, etc. Howbeit ... little was done.... But King James ... encouraged their proceedings therein, expressing his readiness to allow a part of his own lands to be so recovered, towards the charge of the work, in like proportion that other of his subjects should do....
After this ... the lords of the ... Privy Council ... desired them [the commissioners] to endeavour to satisfy all such persons as having no respect to the general good ... should oppose it ... the said commissioners ... concluded (with one consent) that this work of draining was feasible ... and most beneficial to the countries interested, to have good by, that ever was taken in hand of that kind in those days; ... The commissioners names subscribed thereto being these, viz.:
Oliver Cromwell, etc., Thomas Lambert, Robert Cromwell, Ireby, etc., etc.
Whereupon there was a particular view of the whole Level, begun ... (21 June, 1605) and ... the king himself ... incited them to fall in hand speedily with the work and the rather because that was a dry summer, and so the more proper for it ... intimating also that, for the better expediting thereof, he had employed his Chief Justice Popham to take pains therein ... they had information ... that in several places of recovered grounds, within the isle of Ely, etc. such as before that time had lived upon alms having no help but by fishing and fowling and such poor means, out of the common Fens, while they lay drowned, were since come to good and supportable estates.
The limitation of time allowed to Sir John Popham, knight, Lord Chief Justice, and the rest of the adventurers, for accomplishing the work, was to be ten years ...
... for the space of five years at the least ... there nothing appeareth of consequence to have been prosecuted therein, by reason of the opposition which divers perverse spirited people made thereto ... by bringing of turbulent suits in law ... and making of libellous songs ...