A student's history of education

Studies are also being made in several universities to determine the relative importance of the numerous factors in methods of teaching. This is done by conducting experiments with hundreds or thousands of children to find out by the most accurate measurement yet devised the amount of progress in learning that is wholly due to the presence of some one factor of method in the technique of class-room exercises. Educational psychology has revealed the qualitative significance of many of the single elements in the very complex procedure that we have called a ‘method of teaching,’ and this new type of research aims to determine the quantitative significance of each of these several elements of method as factors in the production of abilities. A. Duncan Yocum of the University of Pennsylvania has formulated a considerable number of tests, and, by preliminary experimentation, has determined the conditions under which they may with a high degree of accuracy be given to groups of students engaged in actual school work under ordinary class-room conditions. His students have made a number of tentative, but suggestive studies, which have not yet been published. Milo B. Hillegas of Columbia University and others are engaged on certain aspects of this general type of research. There is reason, therefore, to believe that we may sometime be able to measure with as much accuracy the efficiency of well-defined educational processes as we are now able to measure educational products. If this can be attained, the technique of class-room teaching and of educational supervision will begin to rest on a really scientific basis.

Moreover, by the use of the improved statistical method and of scales, studies of greatly increased value Other mental and social measurements, have been made of fatigue, retardation, elimination, and of other social and mental phenomena of individual children. And in 1911, with the reports of Paul H. Hanus of Harvard University and Ernest C. Moore of Yale University upon the school systems of Montclair and East Orange, New Jersey, there began to be instituted and ‘educational surveys.’ those measurements and consequent criticisms of whole school systems, known as ‘educational surveys.’ These scientific reports have been extended to the educational work of a large number of cities and states throughout the Union. They are intended to enable school officers and patrons to comprehend with more definiteness the absolute, as well as the relative, achievements of their children.

Education and the Theory of Evolution.—A most characteristic influence in education to-day has come through the theory of evolution of Darwin (Fig. 51). This fruitful hypothesis came to be generally accepted during the last quarter of the nineteenth century as the guiding principle of education, and has constantly increased the illumination it has shed upon the educational process. It has given an entirely new meaning to education, and has greatly modified the course of study and revolutionized the method of approaching educational problems. It has wrought very much the same changes Studies of mental development in the race and individual. in the treatment of intelligence that it did in the biological sciences. Consciousness is no longer regarded as a fixed set of entities, but as a developmental process. Instead of classifying and cataloging mental processes in fixed groups, efforts are made to study their growth from the standpoint both of the race and of the individual. Studies of mental development in the race, begun by Darwin’s Descent of Man, which recognized ‘sexual’ and ‘social selection,’ as well as ‘natural selection,’ have been continued by numerous investigators, and equally extensive researches have also been latterly made in genetic psychology, child study, mental development, and adolescence. Both observation and experimentation have been introduced into the study of mental processes. Even more revolutionary than this actual increase in Change in imagery and vocabulary. knowledge, however, is the change that has taken place in the conception, imagery, and terminology of education. Writers upon education constantly employ the language of evolution. Educational discussions are now filled with such terms as ‘variation,’ ‘selection,’ ‘adjustment,’ and ‘adaptation,’ and such concepts dominate all educational thinking. If educational leaders of half a century ago could be present to-day at a gathering of educational thinkers, they would find themselves listening to what would seem to them almost a foreign language.

Enlarging Conceptions of the Function of Education.—Such are a few of the chief tendencies and advances that are being made in education to-day. There is also a great variety of other educational movements, almost too numerous to be mentioned. In the organization and administration of the public schools there is a decided tendency toward centralization in educational activities, Centralization; corresponding to the centralization in industrial and political affairs. The United States Bureau of Education and the various State Departments of Public Instruction have had their functions much enlarged and their activities greatly increased. There are also such school hygiene; matters as the new procedure in school hygiene, arising from the modern attitude toward the prevention of disease; new health regulations, as a result of having so many children housed in the same buildings; medical inspection, open-air schools, and better nourishment; and school architecture; new tendencies in school architecture. Likewise we find progressive legislation on compulsory school attendance; more extensive training of teachers; a rapid recognition professionalization of teaching. of education as a profession; the organization of various types of teachers’ associations; and the development of educational journalism. Secondary education is also Reorganization of secondary and higher education. being greatly extended and largely reorganized. ‘Junior high schools,’ combining the upper grades of the elementary school with the lower grades of the secondary school, and thus bridging the gap, are being widely introduced into American cities, and a variety of propositions for a six-year course are being seriously entertained. In connection with higher education there are such new tendencies as university extension, correspondence courses, summer sessions, university interest in the practical problems of the people, the correlation of the first two years of college with the secondary school, more flexible entrance requirements, an increasing number of fields of professional work, and, above all, the professional training of teachers through Departments of Education, Teachers Colleges, and Schools of Education. With this is connected the scientific study of Education, both in graduate courses and independent investigations.

Similar efforts to secure economy, guard health, improve Other progressive tendencies. method, and cause education to serve democratic ideals are everywhere apparent. Educational theory and practice are in a constant flux, and have entered upon a most distinctive epoch of experimentation, change, and improvement. While such a situation is not without its perils, and each proposal should be carefully scrutinized before acceptance, the present tendencies are in the main a sign of progress and life.

SUPPLEMENTARY READING

Graves, In Modern Times (Macmillan, 1913), chap. XI; Monroe, Textbook (Macmillan, 1905), chaps. XIII-XIV. For the special tendencies mentioned, the following works may be consulted: Cooley, E. G., Vocational Education in Europe (Chicago Commercial Club, 1912); Hanus, P. H., Beginnings in Industrial Education (Houghton, Mifflin, 1908); Haskins, C. W., Business Education and Accounting (Harper, 1904); Adler, F., Moral Instruction of Children (Appleton, 1895); Palmer, G. H., Ethical and Moral Instruction in Schools (Houghton, Mifflin, 1909); Goddard, H. H., Education of Defectives (Monroe’s Cyclopædia of Education); Bell, A. G., Deaf Mute Instruction in Relation to the Work of the Public Schools; Armitage, T., Education and Employment of the Blind (Harrison & Sons, London, 1886); Dewey, J., The School and Society (University of Chicago Press, 1899), and Elementary School Record (University of Chicago Press, 1900); Montessori, Maria, The Montessori Method (Translated by Anne E. George, Stokes Co., New York, 1912); Kilpatrick, W. H., The Montessori Method Examined (Houghton, Mifflin, 1914); Ayres, L. P., Measuring Educational Processes through Educational Results (School Review, May, 1912); Strayer, G. D., Standards and Tests for Measuring the Efficiency of Schools (Report of the Committee of the National Council of Education in the United States Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1913, No. 13); Thorndike, E. L., The Measurement of Educational Products (School Review, May, 1912).

CHAPTER XXVIII

RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT

OUTLINE

Evolution in education may be interpreted from the standpoint of the development of individualism. Individualism was first fully recognized in the teachings of Christ, but was repressed during the Middle Ages. While it reappeared during the Renaissance, Reformation, and other movements, it soon lapsed, but a complete break from tradition occurred with Rousseau in the eighteenth century.

For a time individualism dominated, but education since then has endeavored to afford latitude to the individual without losing sight of the welfare of society.

The Development of Individualism.—The discussion of present day tendencies that has just been given, together with the account of educational evolution in the preceding chapters, serves to show how far modern times have progressed in the ideals and practice of education. This may perhaps be best appreciated from the standpoint of the development of individualism. To follow such an interpretation back to the beginning of the history of education, it may be stated that during the day Progress of individualistic tendencies during the days of primitive man, of primitive man no real distinction was made between society and the individual, and practically all advancement was impossible, for no one looked much beyond the present. With the appearance of the transitional Oriental nations, period in the Oriental countries, the individual had begun to emerge, but was kept in constant subjection to the social whole, for man was quite enslaved to the past. Jewish, Athenian, and Roman civilizations, As the Jewish, Athenian, and Roman civilizations developed, the beginnings of individualism were for the first time clearly revealed, and some regard was had for the future. Then, through the teachings of Christ, Christian development, there came to be a larger recognition of the principle of individualism and the brotherhood of man. Owing to a necessity for spreading these enlarged ideals among a barbarous horde of peoples, individualism was repressed, and the Middle Ages; and throughout the Middle Ages the keynote was submission to authority and preparation for the life to come. The cultural products of Greece and Rome largely disappeared, and all civilization became restricted, fixed, and formal.

But the human spirit could not be forever held in bondage, and, after almost a millennium of repression and uniformity, various factors that had accumulated within the Middle Ages produced an intellectual awakening the Renaissance, that we know as the ‘Renaissance.’ Its vitality lasted during the fifteenth century in Italy and to the close of the sixteenth in the Northern countries, but by the dawn of the seventeenth century it had everywhere degenerated into a dry and mechanical study of the classics. This constituted a formalism almost as dense as that it had superseded, except that linguistic and literary studies had replaced dialectic and theology. A little later than the spread of the Renaissance, though overlapping the Reformation, it somewhat, came the allied movement of the ‘Reformation.’ This grew in part out of the disposition of the Northern Renaissance to turn to social and moral account the revived intelligence and learning. Yet here also the revival failed in its mission, and the tendency to rely upon reason rather than dogma hardened into formalism and a distrust of individualism. Again, in the seventeenth century, apparently as an outgrowth of the same forces, intellectual activity took the form of a search for ‘real things.’ The movement that culminated and realism; in ‘sense realism’ appeared, but this small and crude beginning of the modern scientific tendency was for some decades yet held within limits. Associated with this realistic tendency, on the religious and political sides also appeared a quickening in such forms as ‘Puritanism’ Puritanism and Pietism; and ‘Pietism,’ which likewise degenerated eventually into a fanaticism and hypocrisy.

The Harmonization of the Individual and Society.—Thus and Rousseau and the destructive tendency. the way was opened for the complete break with tradition and authority that occurred in the eighteenth century. This tendency, while in France at least most destructive and costly, was the inevitable result of the unwillingness to reshape society and education in accordance with changing ideals and conditions. Hence Rousseau undertook to shatter all educational traditions. But his recommendation of isolated education, so palpable in its fallacies, prepared the ground for the numerous social, scientific, and psychological tendencies (see pp. 218-222) that were destined to spring up in modern education and for the consequent improvement in the aim, organization, content, and method of education. Of course modern education has advanced infinitely beyond anything implied by Rousseau or even the later reformers of the past century, but it is out of his attempts at destruction that has grown this nobler structure. For a time individualism triumphed and ground authority under its heel, but when this extremity had been passed, the problem became how to harmonize the individual with society, and to develop personality progressively in keeping with its environment. Thus the nineteenth and twentieth centuries have put forth conscious efforts to justify the eighteenth and to bring The present tendencies in education seem to harmonize the individual interest with those of society. out and develop the positions barely hinted at in its negations. It is not alone the individual as such that has been of interest in the modern period, but more and more the individual in relation to the social whole to which he belongs, as only in this way can the value of his activities be estimated.

This is revealed in the works of those who followed Rousseau, and especially in the attempts of recent Recent definitions of education show this. educational philosophers to frame a definition of education that shall recognize the importance of affording latitude to the individual without losing sight of the welfare of the social environment in connection with which his efforts are to function. Thus Butler, though recognizing the individual factor, especially stresses the social by declaring education to be “the gradual adjustment of the individual to the spiritual possessions of the race.” Then he further declares: “When we hear it sometimes said, ‘All education must start from the child,’ we must add, ‘Yes, and lead into human civilization;’ and when it is said on the other hand that ‘all education must start from a traditional past,’ we must add, ‘Yes, and be adapted to the child.’” And the balance between the two factors of the individual and society is even more explicitly preserved in Dewey’s statement “that the psychological and social sides are organically related, and that education cannot be regarded as a compromise between the two, or a superimposition of one upon the other.” In the same way Bagley has made ‘social efficiency’ the main aim in educating the individual to-day, and both elements are carefully considered by all modern writers in discussing educational values. Thus the central problem in education of the twentieth and succeeding centuries is to be The educational problem of the future. a constant reorganization of the curriculum and methods of teaching, and this reconstruction must be such as to harmonize a due regard for the progressive variations of the individual with the welfare of the conservative institutions of society. It must include a continual effort to hand on the intellectual possessions of the race, but also to stimulate all individuals to add some modification or new element to the product. In this way there may develop unending possibilities for both the individual and society.

SUPPLEMENTARY READING

Graves, F. P., History of Education before the Middle Ages (Macmillan, 1909), chap. XII; History of Education during the Transition (Macmillan, 1910), chap. XXIII; History of Education in Modern Times (Macmillan, 1913), chap. XII; Monroe, P., Textbook in the History of Education (Macmillan, 1905), chap. X.

INDEX

• Abelard, 70, 76.
• Academy, in Germany, 158;
• in England, 159, 177, 410;
• of Franklin, 196;
• Lancasterian, 242;
• in South, 258;
• in New York, 260;
• in Massachusetts, 268;
• in United States, 274, 331, 414.
• Adventure schools, 93.
• Agassiz, 398, 413.
• Agricola, 112.
• Agricultural training, 295 ff., 424.
• Alcotts, The, 293.
• Alcuin, 61 ff.
• Alexandria, 29, 30, 46.
• Alsted, 171.
• American Annals of Education, 305.
• American Journal of Education (Russell) 304, (Barnard) 316 ff.
• American Sunday School Union, 238.
• Andover Theological Seminary, 299.
• Anselm, 70.
• Antioch, 46.
• Apologists, 45.
• Apostles’ Creed, 48.
• Apperception, 338, 341.
• Aquinas, 71 f.
• Archimedes, 30.
• Aristophanes, 19.
• Aristotle, 19, 24 ff., 27, 45, 58, 70 f., 165, 182.
• Ascham, 117.
• Assyria, 5.
• Athens, 14 ff.
• Atrium, 170.
• Averroës, 67.
• Avicenna, 66, 79.
• Babylonia, 5.
• Bacon, Francis, 23, 164 f., 166, 171, 174, 206.
• Bacon, Roger, 163.
• Bagley, W. C., 445.
• Barnard, 309, 312 ff.
• Basedow, 220, 223 ff., 231.
• Bateus, 169.
• Bell, Andrew, 239 f.
• Benedict, St., 55.
• Bentham, 387.
• Berkeley, 192.
• Blackstone, 387.
• Blankenburg, 354.
• Blow, Susan E., 366 f.
• Board schools, 241, 388 ff., 425.
• Boccaccio, 104.
• Bölte, 366.
• Boëthius, 57 f.
• Bonnal, 279.
• Boyle, 163.
• Brathwaite, 156.
• Bray, Thomas, 232.
• Brinsley, 119.
• British and Foreign Society, 239 f.
• Brooks, Charles, 293.
• Brothers of Sincerity, 66.
• Brothers of the Christian Schools, 140.
• Brougham, 387.
• Bruni, 105.
• Buchanan, James, 245.
• Budæus, 110.
• Bugenhagen, 128, 145.
• Bülow, Baroness von, 354.
• Burgdorf, 281 f.
• Burgher schools, 93 f.
• Burrowes, T. H., 323.
• Butler, N. M., 444.
• Cæsarea, 46.
• Calvin, 130, 193, 197.
• Cambridge, 117, 149, 177, 392.
• Campe, 225, 228.
• Capella, Martianus, 57.
• Carlisle, 299.
• Carpenter, Mary, 299.
• Carter, J. G., 305, 309.
• Cassiodorus, 57.
• Castes, 5 ff.
• Castiglione, 156.
• Catechetical schools, 46.
• Catechumenal schools, 43 f.
• Cathedral schools, 46 f., 54, 131.
• Catholepistemiad, 273.
• Chantry schools, 94 f., 132.
• Charity schools, 231 ff.
• Charlemagne, 61 ff.
• Charles VIII, 110.
• Chavannes, 291, 292.
• Cheke, 117.
• China, 5.
• Chivalry, 83 ff.
• Christianity, 29, 42 f.
• Chrysoloras, 104.
• Cicero, 58, 108, 116, 151.
• Circulating schools, 234.
• Clement of Alexandria, 46.
• Clinton, De Witt, 260.
• Cockerton Judgment, 391.
• Colburn, Warren, 293.
• Colet, 93, 117 f.
• College of Clermont, 137.
• College of France, 111, 385.
• College of Guyenne, 111.
• College of William and Mary, 192.
• Combe, 403, 405, 410, 416.
• Comenius, 167, 168 ff., 224, 353.
• Commercial education, 422 f.
• Communal collèges, 384.
• Concentration, 340, 345 f., 350, 429.
• Condillac, 205.
• Conduct of the Understanding, 180.
• Connecticut Common School Journal, 313.
• Continuation school, 298, 374, 377, 383, 420.
• Copernicus, 163.
• Corderius, 111, 130.
• Cordova, 66.
• Corpus Juris Civilis, 76, 79.
• Correlation, 341, 344, 350.
• Council of Whitby, 56.
• Court schools, 105 ff.
• Cousin, 291 f., 408.
• Creativeness, 356 ff.
• Culture epochs, 341, 344, 346.
• Cygnæus, 363.
• D’Alembert, 205.
• Dame schools, 266.
• Dana, James D., 412.
• Darwin, 398, 413, 437 f.
• Decree of Gratian, 76, 79.
• Defectives, 300, 426 ff.
• De Garmo, Charles, 348, 351.
• Delayed maturing, 221.
• Delinquents, 142, 300.
• Descartes, 138.
• Dewey, John, 364, 429 ff., 444.
• Dialectic, 20, 58, 71, 76, 127.
• Didascaleum, 14, 18, 21.
• Diderot, 205.
• Diophantus, 30.
• Discipline, Locke’s, 180 ff.
• Districts, 266 f.
• Divided schools, 267.
• Dock, Christopher, 195.
• Donatus, 58.
• Double translation, 117.
• Duns Scotus, 71.
• Eaton, Amos, 412.
• Écoles maternelles, 383.
• Edessa, 46.
• Edward VI, 132.
• Edwards, Ninian W., 325.
• Egypt, 5.
• Eisleben, 128, 145.
• Elementarwerk, 224.
• Elementary education, with Hindus, 7;
• with Jews, 9;
• in Sparta, 13;
• in Athens, 14;
• in Rome, 33, 36 f.;
• monastic, 56;
• with Charlemagne, 62;
• humanistic, 105 ff., 113 f.;
• Sturm, 115;
• Zwingli, 129;
• Jesuit, 134;
• Port Royal, 139 f.;
• Reformation, 144 ff.;
• Innovators, 156;
• Comenius, 171;
• German realists, 175;
• colonial Virginia, 191;
• colonial New York, 194;
• colonial Pennsylvania, 195;
• colonial Massachusetts, 197;
• England, 231, 244 ff., 387 ff., 409;
• S. P. G., 234;
• monitorial, 240;
• France, 243, 381, 408;
• United States, 246, 415;
• New York, 258 f.;
• Herbartian, 347;
• Prussia, 377;
• Canada, 392 ff.;
• Germany, 407.
• Eliot, Charles W., 403.
• Elyot, 156.
• Emile, 208 ff.
• Encyclopedists, 204 ff.
• Épée, Abbé de l’, 428.
• Epicureans, 28, 46.
• Episcopal schools, 46 f.
• Erasmus, 113, 117, 125.
• Eratosthenes, 30.
• Erigena, 64.
• Essay concerning the Human Understanding, 180.
• Euclid, 30, 58.
• Evening Hour of a Hermit, 279.
• Faculty psychology, 27, 182 ff., 222, 434.
• Falloux, 382.
• Father’s Journal, 278.
• Felbiger, 374.
• Fellenberg, 219, 295 ff.
• Feudalism, 83 f., 90.
• Fichte, 290, 351.
• Field school, 253.
• Formal discipline, 23, 182 ff., 404, 434.
• Forster, W. E., 388.
• Fortbildungsschulen, 298, 377, 420.
• Francis I, 110.
• Francke, 175 f.
• Francke Institutions, 346.
• Frankland, 158.
• Franklin, Benjamin, 159, 261.
• Frederick Barbarossa, 76.
• Frederick the Great, 373.
• Frederick William I, 373.
• Frederick William III, 290, 375.
• Frederick II, 67, 75.
• Free School Society, 260.
• French Revolution, 204.
• Frick, 346.
• Froebel, 168, 175, 219, 243, 334, 351 ff., 368, 430 f.
• Froebel Union, 365.
• Fulda, 63.
• Galen, 79, 164.
• Galileo, 163.
• Galloway, S., 325.
• Gild schools, 92 f., 132.
• Gifts, 354, 359 f.
• Gnosticism, 30, 45.
• Goddard, H. H., 427.
• Grammar schools, Rome, 36 f.;
• cathedral, 47;
• monastic, 57;
• Charlemagne, 61;
• chantry, 94;
• England, 118 f.;
• America, 120;
• New Amsterdam, 194;
• Massachusetts, 197;
• Virginia, 253;
• South, 258;
• United States, 274, 331.
• Granada, 66.
• Gratian, 76, 79.
• Gravel Lane School, 234.
• Gray, Asa, 413.
• Great Didactic, 169, 170 ff., 175.
• Griscom, 242, 292, 305.
• Grocyn, 117.
• Grüner, 352.
• Guericke, 163.
• Guizot, 382.
• Guyot, 293.
• Gymnasium, Athens, 15, 17, 21;
• Melanchthon, 114;
• Sturm, 115 f., 128, 157, 176;
• Prussian, 378, 406.
• Hall, Samuel R., 304.
• Hampton, 299.
• Hanus, P. H., 437.
• Harvard, 149, 177, 198.
• Harvey, 164 f., 206.
• Haüy, Abbé, 428.
• Hawley, Gideon, 259.
• Hecker, 176, 373, 378.
• Hellenistic philosophy, 29.
• Henry VIII, 131.
• Herbart, 168, 175, 219, 243, 334 ff., 363, 368.
• Herbart Society, 348, 351.
• Hieronymians, 112 ff.
• High school, 242, 269, 306, 311, 331, 414.
• Hillegas, M. B., 436.
• Hippocrates, 79.
• Hofwyl, 295 ff.
• Home and Colonial School Society, 246.
• Hopkins, Edward, 120.
• How Gertrude Teaches Her Children, 282, 286.
• Humanistic education, 102 ff., 164.
• Hume, 335.
• Hutton, 398.
• Huxley, 220, 399, 402, 404, 416.
• India, 5 ff.
• Induction, 165, 173 f.
• Industrial education, of gilds, 91 f.;
• La Salle, 141;
• Virginia, 191, 193;
• Massachusetts, 197;
• Philanthropinum, 229;
• monitorial, 240;
• charity, 249;
• Pestalozzi, 278 ff.;
• Fellenberg, 295 ff.;
• Europe, 298 ff.;
• present status, 419 ff.
• Infant School Society, 246 f.
• Infant schools, 243 ff.
• Initiatory ceremonies, 5.
• Innovators, 156.
• Irnerius, 76.
• Isocrates, 28.
• Jansenists, 138 ff.
• Janua Linguarum, 169, 174.
• Jarrow, 56.
• Jefferson, 253, 270.
• Jesuits, 133 ff.
• Jews, 9 f.
• Joule, 398.
• Judaism, 29.
• Jullien, General, 291 f.
• Justinian, 54, 76.
• Kant, 227.
• Keilhau, 353.
• Kepler, 163, 165.
• Kerschensteiner, 420.
• Kindergarten, 354, 358 ff., 364 ff.
• Kitchen school, 267.
• Krüsi, 289.
• Lancaster, Joseph, 239 ff.
• Lagrange, 398, 408.
• Lange, Karl, 346.
• Langethal, 352.
• Laplace, 398, 408.
• La Salle, 140.
• Latin schools. See Grammar schools.
• Laws, The, 23.
• Leonard and Gertrude, 278 f.
• Leopold of Dessau, 225.
• Lewis, S., 325.
• Liberal studies, 23, 56 f., 122.
• Libraries, 307.
• Liebig, 398, 406.
• Liebenstein, 354.
• Lily, 113, 118.
• Linacre, 117.
• Locke, 154 ff., 158, 179, 206, 213, 335.
• Louis XII, 110.
• Louis XIV, 140.
• Louis XV, 207.
• Louis Philippe, 382.
• Loyola, 132 f.
• Ludus, 36 f.
• Luther, 114, 125 ff.
• Lycées, 384, 408.
• McClure, William, 292.
• McMurry, C. A., 348.
• McMurry, F. M., 348, 351.
• Malpighi, 164.
• Mann, 293, 304, 306 ff., 415.
• Manual training, in United States, 298 f.;
• Cygnæus, 363;
• in France, 383.
• Many-sided interest, 336 ff.
• Marwedel, Emma, 366.
• Mason, 293.
• Massachusetts Common School Journal, 307.
• Maternal schools, 244.
• Maurus, Rabanus, 63 f.
• Mayer, 398.
• Mayo, Charles, 246, 291.
• Medici, 105.
• Melanchthon, 114, 128, 131, 145.
• Mendel, 398.
• Merchant Taylors’, 92, 120.
• Meriam, J. L., 432.
• Methodenbuch, 224.
• Middendorf, 352.
• Mills, Caleb, 325.
• Milton, 152, 155, 157.
• Mittelschule, 377.
• Mohammed, 65.
• Mohammedanism, 27, 65 ff.
• Monastic schools, 49, 54 ff., 132.
• Monitorial system, 239 ff.
• Montaigne, 153 f., 155.
• Montessori, 433.
• Moore, E. C., 437.
• Moors, 66.
• More, 23, 117.
• Morrill Act, 413.
• Morton, Charles, 158.
• Mother Play and Nursery Songs, 358 f., 360.
• Motor expression, 356.
• Moving school, 267.
• Mulcaster, 155 f.
• Murphy, Judge A. D., 257.
• Nägeli, 285, 293.
• Napoleon, 381, 408.
• National Education Association, 350.
• National Society, 233, 239 f.
• Naturalism, 180, 277.
• Nature study, 415.
• Neander, 129.
• Neef, 292.
• Neomazdeism, 29.
• Neoplatonism, 30.
• Neopythagoreanism, 29.
• Neshaminy, 196.
• Nestorius, 46.
• Neuhof, 278.
• New Atlantis, 23, 166.
• Newlands, 398.
• New Testament, 48.
• Newton, 164 f., 177, 206, 398.
• Niccoli, Niccolo de’, 105.
• Nicene Creed, 48.
• Nicolovius, 290.
• Nisibis, 46.
• Normal schools, Carter, 305;
• Mann, 307 f.;
• Massachusetts, 320;
• Middle states, 322, 324;
• Zedlitz, 374;
• France, 382, 408.
• Notre Dame, 76.
• Novalis, 321.
• Novum Organum, 165.
• Oberlin, 244.
• Oberrealschule, 378 f., 406.
• Observation, 276 ff., 280, 286 ff., 337, 343.
• Occam, William of, 71.
• Occupational work, Froebel, 363;
• Europe and United States, 364;
• Dewey, 429 f.
• Occupations, 354, 359 f.
• Orbis Pictus, 170, 174, 224.
• Ordinance of 1787, 271.
• Origen of Alexandria, 46.
• Oswego methods, 293 f., 415.
• Otherworldliness, 43 ff., 75, 101, 121.
• Outlines of Educational Doctrine, 337.
• Owen, 244 f., 387.
• Oxford, 117, 149, 177, 392, 409.
• Pädagogium, 176.
• Palace school, 61.
• Palæstra, 14, 17, 21.
• Pancratium, 13.
• Pansophia, 167, 169, 171 ff.
• Parishads, 7.
• Parker, Colonel F. W., 293, 350, 364, 429.
• Parochial schools, 193 f.
• Peabody, Elizabeth P., 366.
• Peabody Educational Fund, 329.
• Peacham, 156.
• Penn, 120.
• Penn Charter School, 195.
• Pentathlum, 13 f.
• Permissive laws, 256 f., 263 f., 269, 273, 320, 322, 324 f., 328.
• Persia, 5.
• Pestalozzi, 156, 168, 175, 219, 243, 277 ff., 363, 368, 415.
• Peter the Lombard, 71 f., 76, 79.
• Petrarch, 103 f.
• Philanthropic movement, 229 ff.
• Philanthropinum, 223 ff.
• Philip Augustus, 76.
• Philonism, 29.
• Philosophical schools, Athens, 27 f.
• Pickering, Timothy, 261 f.
• Pietists, 176 f.
• Plamann, 289.
• Plato, 19 ff., 45, 56 f.
• Politics, 24.
• Poor schools, 261.
• Port Royal, 138 ff.
• Prelection, 135.
• Primitive peoples, 4 f.
• Princes’ schools, 116.
• Priscian, 58.
• Progymnasien, 379.
• Protagoras, 18 f.
• Prussian-Pestalozzianism, 289, 293, 308.
• Psychological movement, 220 f., 415 f.
• Ptolemy, 58.
• Public schools, England, 120, 410.
• Public School Society, 247, 261, 322.
• Pythagoras, 18 f., 23, 45.
• Quadrivium, 23, 57, 62.
• Quarterly Register, 305.
• Quintilian, 58.
• Rabelais, 155.
• Raikes, 237.
• Ramus, 111.
• Ratich, 167, 175.
• Raymund of Toledo, 67.
• Realgymnasien, 378, 406.
• Realism, 151 ff., 162, 179.
• Realprogymnasien, 379.
• Realschulen, 176, 378 f., 406.
• Rechahn, 228.
• Reformation, 125 ff.
• Reformschulen, 379.
• Rein, W., 342, 346.
• Renaissance, 70, 95, 101 ff.
• Republic, The, 21 ff.
• Reuchlin, 112, 114.
• Reyher, Andreas, 175.
• Rhetorical schools, Athens, 28, 30;
• Rome, 36, 38 f.
• Rhode Island School Journal, 314.
• Ritter, 220, 285 f., 293.
• Ritterakademien, 157, 176.
• Robinson Crusoe, 216, 225, 345.
• Rochow, 228.
• Rogers, W. B., 413.
• Rolland, 381.
• Rollin, 140.
• Rome, 29 f., 32 ff.
• Rousseau, 156, 175, 179, 206 ff., 231, 277, 285 ff., 363, 368, 416, 443.
• Rush, B., 261.
• Russell, W., 304.
• St. Paul’s school, 93, 118, 132.
• St. Yon, 141.
• Salomon, 364.
• Salzmann, 220, 225, 228, 231, 284.
• Saxony, 145.
• Schelling, 352.
• Schlegels, The, 352.
• Scholasticism, 69 ff., 76.
• Scholemaster, The, 117.
• Science of Education, 337.
• Scientific movement, 152, 163, 166 f., 219 f., 397 ff.
• Secondary education, Athens, 15, 17;
• Plato, 21;
• Aristotle, 25;
• Rome, 36;
• gild schools, 92;
• humanistic, 105 ff.;
• French, 111;
• German, 114 ff.;
• England, 118 f., 132, 158, 390 f., 409;
• Jesuit, 134;
• Port Royal, 138 ff.;
• La Salle, 141;
• Reformation, 147 f.;
• America, 158 ff., 274, 414;
• Comenius, 171;
• realists, 176;
• colonial, 191 f., 193 f., 195 f., 196 f.;
• charity schools, 235;
• monitorial, 242;
• Virginia, 253 f.;
• other Southern states, 256 f.;
• New York, 258 f.;
• Massachusetts, 268;
• Carter, 306;
• Mann, 319, 331;
• Herbart, 347;
• Prussia, 373, 378 ff.;
• France, 384, 408;
• Canada, 394;
• Germany, 406.
• Seguin, 426 f., 433.
• Self-activity, 356 ff.
• Semler, 176.
• Sense realism, 152, 162 ff., 169, 173, 175 f., 179.
• Seventh Annual Report, Mann’s, 293, 308.
• Sheldon, E. A., 293.
• Simultaneous method, 143.
• Skeptics, 28.
• Smith, Adam, 387.
• Social realism, 153 ff.
• Sociological movement, 218, 357, 415 ff.
• Socrates, 19 f.
• Sophie, 217.
• Sophists, 17 ff.
• Sparta, 12 ff.
• Spencer, 220, 400 ff., 416.
• S. P. C. K., 232.
• S. P. G., 234 ff.
• S. P. K. G., 236.
• Stanz, 279 ff.
• Stevens, Thaddeus, 263.
• Stoics, 28, 45.
• Stowe, David, 305.
• Stoy, 345 f.
• Strassburg, 115, 128.
• Sturm, 115 f., 128, 131.
• Süvern, 290.
• Sunday schools, 237 f.
• Swiss Family Robinson, 225.
• Syllabaries, 281, 283.
• Table of fractions, 283.
• Table of units, 281, 283, 293.
• Technische Hochschulen, 380, 406.
• Theodore of Gaza, 113.
• Thorndike, E. L., 435.
• Thoughts concerning Education, 179 f.
• Tieck, 352.
• Toledo, 66.
• Torricelli, 163.
• Trinity Church School, 235.
• Trivium, 57.
• Trotzendorf, 129.
• Türck, 290.
• Tuskegee, 299.
• University, Athens, 29, 39;
• Alexandria, 28, 39;
• Rhodes, 29, 39;
• Rome, 29, 39;
• Pergamon, 29;
• mediæval, 74 ff.;
• Paris, 75 ff., 110;
• Bologna, 75 ff.;
• Salerno, 75;
• Erfurt, 111;
• Leipzig, 111;
• Heidelberg, 111;
• Tübingen, 111;
• Ingoldstadt, 111;
• Vienna, 111;
• Wittenberg, 111;
• Marburg, 111;
• Königsberg, 111;
• Jena, 111;
• after Reformation, 148 f.;
• Halle, 177;
• Göttingen, 177;
• Yale, 177;
• Princeton, 177, 196;
• Columbia, 177;
• Pennsylvania, 177;
• Virginia, 254;
• Georgia, 256;
• Michigan, 326;
• France, 381;
• Cornell, 413;
• Johns Hopkins, 413.
• University of the State of New York, 259.
• Vaux, Robert, 247.
• Vergerio, 105.
• Verona, 105.
• Vestibulum, 169 f.
• Visconti, 105.
• Vittorino da Feltre, 105 ff.
• Vives, 117.
• Vocational education, 219, 240, 249.
• Volksschulen, 145, 377, 407.
• Voltaire, 204 ff., 287.
• Voluntary schools, 388 ff., 425.
• Vorschulen, 380.
• Wandering students, 78.
• Wehrli, 295.
• Weiss, Professor, 352.
• Wessel, 112.
• What Knowledge Is of Most Worth, 400.
• Whitebread, 387.
• Wilderspin, 245.
• William of Champeaux, 76.
• Williams, Roger, 120.
• Wimpfeling, 112, 125.
• Wirt, W. A., 432.
• Witmer, L., 427.
• Woman’s education, Hindu, 7;
• Sparta, 14;
• Athens, 15;
• Aristotle, 25;
• Rome, 34;
• Convent, 56;
• Luther, 127;
• realists, 156;
• academies, 160;
• Comenius, 171;
• charity schools, 278;
• Pestalozzi, 278;
• Fellenberg, 297;
• Mann, 309;
• France, 385.
• Woodbridge, W. C., 305.
• Woodhouse, John, 158.
• Würtemberg, 145.
• Wyss, 255.
• Yocum, A. D., 436.
• York, 56, 61.
• Youmans, E. L., 403, 405.
• Yverdon, 283.
• Zedlitz, von, 374.
• Ziller, 289, 295, 341 f., 345 f., 347.
• Zoroastrianism, 29.
• Zwingli, 129.