A text-book of veterinary anatomy

Structure.—The fleshy portion of the muscle or humeral head takes origin from the humerus. The radial head (Caput tendineum) consists of a strong fibrous band, usually termed the radial or superior check ligament, which fuses with the tendon near the carpus. The belly of the muscle is intersected by tendinous strands, and fuses more or less with that of the deep flexor. Near the carpus it is succeeded by a strong, thick tendon which passes down through the carpal canal, formed by the posterior ligament of the carpus, the accessory carpal bone, and the posterior annular ligament (Ligamentum carpi transversum). Here it is enveloped by a synovial sheath, in common with the deep flexor. This carpal sheath (Vagina carpea) begins three or four inches (8 to 10 cm.) above the carpus, and extends downward nearly to the middle of the metacarpus. Below the carpus the tendon becomes flattened and broader. Near the fetlock it forms a ring through which the tendon of the deep flexor passes (Fig. 150). Here the two tendons are bound down in the sesamoid groove by the posterior annular ligament, which fuses more or less with the superficial flexor tendon. At the distal end of the first phalanx the tendon divides into two branches which diverge to reach their points of insertion, and between these branches the tendon of the deep flexor emerges (Fig. 189). A second synovial sheath, the digital or sesamoidean (Vagina digitalis), begins at the distal third of the metacarpus, three to four inches (8 to 10 cm.) above the fetlock, and extends to the middle of the second phalanx.

Relations.—The belly of the muscle is related superficially to the ulnar head of the deep flexor, the flexor carpi medius, and, at its origin, to the ulnar vessels and nerve; deeply to the humeral head of the deep flexor. The tendon is related superficially to the skin and fascia; deeply to the deep flexor tendon.

Blood-supply.—Posterior radial artery.

Nerve-supply.—Median nerve.

5. Deep digital flexor or flexor perforans (M. flexor digitalis profundus; deep flexor of the phalanges).—The fleshy part of this muscle lies on the posterior surface of the radius, under cover of the preceding muscles. It is the largest muscle of the flexor group.

Origin.—(1) The flexor (internal) epicondyle of the humerus; (2) the inner surface of the olecranon; (3) the middle of the posterior surface of the radius and a small adjacent area of the ulna.

Insertion.—The semilunar crest of the third phalanx, and the adjacent surface of the lateral cartilage.

Action.—To flex the digit and carpus, and to extend the elbow.

Structure.—This muscle consists of three principal heads. The humeral head (Caput humerale) constitutes the bulk of the muscle. It is marked by tendinous intersections, and is separable into three secondary heads. The ulnar head (Caput ulnare, ulnaris accessorius) is much smaller, and is at first superficially situated between the outer and middle flexors of the carpus, the radial head (Caput radiale, radialis accessorius) is the smallest, and is not always present; it is situated on the distal two-thirds of the posterior surface of the radius, under the humeral head. Each of these heads is provided with a tendon. The principal tendon—that of the humeral head—begins about three or four inches (8 to 10 cm.) above the carpus. It is soon joined by the small tendon of the ulnar head, which begins about the middle of the forearm. The tendon of the radial head fuses with the principal tendon close to the carpus. The conjoined tendon passes downward through the carpal canal, being included in the carpal synovial sheath with the superficial flexor tendon, as previously described. Continuing downward, it is joined about the middle of the metacarpus by a strong fibrous band, the so-called inferior or subcarpal check ligament (Caput tendineum). This is a direct continuation of the posterior ligament of the carpus. Below this the tendon passes through the ring formed by the perforatus, then in succession over the sesamoid groove, the inferior sesamoidean ligaments, and the tendon surface of the third sesamoid, to its insertion (Figs. 150 and 151). Its terminal part is much widened. From the distal third of the metacarpus to the distal end of the second phalanx it is inclosed in the digital synovial sheath described in connection with the perforatus. The navicular bursa or bursa podotrochlearis is found between the tendon and the third sesamoid or navicular bone. The terminal part of the tendon is bound down by the fibrous sheet described with the fascia.

Relations.—The belly of the muscle is related posteriorly to the perforatus and the middle flexor of the carpus; internally, to the internal carpal flexor, the radial check ligament, and the posterior radial vessels and median nerve; externally, to the external flexor of the carpus; anteriorly, to the radius and ulna and branches of the posterior radial artery and median nerve. Below the carpus the tendon is accompanied by the vessels and nerves of the digit. It may also be noted that the muscle is not entirely covered by the other flexors; it comes in contact with the skin and fascia on the postero-external aspect of the proximal half of the forearm, and also on the outer aspect of the distal fourth.

Blood-supply.—Posterior radial and ulnar arteries.

Nerve-supply.—Median and ulnar nerves.

The five muscles of this group are either reduced to vestiges or modified greatly in structure.

1, 2. Lumbricales (internus et externus).—These are two small muscles which lie on either side of the flexor tendons above the fetlock. They arise from the deep flexor tendon, and are lost in the fibrous tissue which lies under the nodule of horn or ergot at the fetlock (Fig. 447). Their action is inappreciable. The size of these muscles is subject to much variation. Often very little muscular tissue can be found, but the small tendon is constantly present.

Blood-supply.—Metacarpal arteries.

Nerve-supply.—Median and ulnar nerves.

3, 4, 5. Interossei.—These are three in number in the horse, and are situated chiefly in the metacarpal groove. Two, the internus and externus, are very small muscles, each of which arises from the corresponding small metacarpal bone near its proximal extremity, and is provided with a delicate tendon which is usually lost in the fascia at the fetlock (Fig. 150). They have no appreciable action. Their blood- and nerve-supply is the same as that of the preceding muscles.

The interosseus medius is so much modified that it is usually termed the suspensory, or superior sesamoidean ligament. It contains little muscular tissue, being transformed very largely into a strong tendinous band, bifurcate below, and having for its chief function the supporting of the fetlock. It has been described, in deference to common usage, with the ligaments.

Fasciæ and Muscles of the Pelvic Limb

The Fasciæ

The iliac fascia (Fascia iliaca) covers the ventral surface of the iliacus and psoas muscles, over which it is tightly stretched (Fig. 450). It is attached internally to the tendon of the psoas minor, externally to the inguinal (Poupart’s) ligament and the external angle of the ilium. Its anterior part is thin. Posteriorly, it is in part attached to the ilium, in part becomes continuous with the pelvic fascia. It furnishes surfaces of origin for the sartorius, cremaster externus, and transversus abdominis muscles.

The pelvic fascia (Fascia pelvis) lines the cavity (parietal layer) and is reflected on the viscera at the pelvic outlet (visceral layer). Laminæ are detached from it to strengthen the various peritoneal folds.

The superficial fascia of the gluteal region is continuous with the aponeurosis of the panniculus. It covers and partly blends with the deep fascia. The gluteal fascia (Fascia glutea) covers the superficial muscles of the region, and detaches intermuscular septa, which pass between the muscles. It is attached to the sacral spines, the dorsal sacro-iliac ligament, and the angles of the ilium, and is continuous in front with the lumbo-dorsal fascia, behind with the coccygeal fascia. Its deep face gives origin to fibers of the superficial and middle glutei, the biceps femoris, and the semitendinosus, so that care is necessary in dissecting it off these muscles. The chief intermuscular septa are: (1) One which passes between the superficial gluteus and the biceps femoris; (2) one between the biceps and semitendinosus, from which a lamella is detached which passes between the middle and posterior portions of the biceps and is attached to the tuber ischii; (3) one between the semitendinosus and semimembranosus, which is attached to the sacro-sciatic ligament and tuber ischii; it furnishes origin for fibers of the long head of the semimembranosus.

The fascia lata is continuous with the preceding, and covers the muscles on the outer surface and front of the thigh. It is tendinous and very strong, and for the most part easily separable from the underlying muscles. It furnishes insertion to the tensor fasciæ latæ and to the biceps femoris (in part), by both of which it is tensed. At the stifle it is attached to the patella and the inner and outer straight ligaments. Internally it is continuous with the internal femoral fascia. It furnishes the following intermuscular septa: (1) One which passes between the vastus externus and biceps femoris to be attached to the external trochanter of the femur; (2) two which pass between the three branches of the biceps femoris; (3) a fourth between the biceps femoris and semitendinosus.

The internal femoral fascia (Fascia femoralis medialis) covers the superficial muscles on the inner surface of the thigh. At its upper part it is joined by part of the aponeurosis of the external oblique muscle (Lamina femoralis) (Fig. 450). The posterior part is thin. It is continuous with the fascia lata in front and the crural fascia below. At the stifle it fuses with the tendons of the sartorius and gracilis.

The crural fascia, or fascia of the leg (Fascia cruris), consists of three layers. Two of these invest the entire region and may, therefore, be termed the common fasciæ. The superficial layer is a continuation of the fasciæ of the thigh, while the second layer may be regarded chiefly as a continuation of the tendons of the superficial muscles of the hip and thigh (biceps femoris, semitendinosus, tensor fasciæ latæ, sartorius, and gracilis). The two layers frequently fuse, and are attached chiefly to the patellar ligaments and the crest and internal surface of the tibia. About the middle of the leg the two layers unite behind the deep flexor of the digit and form a strong band which passes downward in front of the tendons of the gastrocnemius and superficial flexor, to be attached with the latter to the anterior and inner part of the tuber calcis. This may be regarded as an accessory or tarsal tendon of insertion of the biceps femoris and semitendinosus. The third layer forms sheaths for the muscles, furnishing origin in part to their fibers. Two important intermuscular septa are detached, viz.: (1) One which passes between the anterior and lateral digital extensors to be attached to the fibula and the external border of the tibia; (2) one between the lateral extensor and the deep flexor.

The tarsal fascia (Fascia tarsi) fuses with the ligaments and bony prominences of the region. It is strong and tendinous in front, and joins the tendon of the anterior extensor below the joint. Laterally, it is thin and fuses with the ligaments. Posteriorly, it is very thick and strong, forming an annular ligament which stretches from the internal lateral ligament to the fibular tarsal bone and the plantar ligament. This converts the groove at the back of the hock into a canal, in which are the deep flexor tendon with its synovial sheath and the plantar nerves. In front of the tarsus and above and below it there are three annular ligaments (Ligamenta transversa). The proximal one binds down the tendons of the anterior extensor, peroneus tertius, and tibialis anterior on the distal end of the tibia. The middle one stretches from the fibular tarsal bone to the outer tendon of the peroneus tertius, forming a loop around the tendon of the anterior extensor. The distal band stretches across the proximal extremity of the large metatarsal bone and incloses the tendons (and sheaths) of the two extensors of the digit.

The metatarsal and digital fasciæ do not differ materially from those of the corresponding regions of the thoracic limb.

The Muscles

I. THE SUBLUMBAR MUSCLES (Figs. 450, 456)

The muscles of this group are not confined to the sublumbar region, but extend beyond it both before and behind. Their chief function is to flex the hip joint. Two, however,—the psoas minor and the quadratus lumborum,—have not this action.

1. Psoas minor (s. parvus).—This is a fusiform, flattened, pennate muscle, which lies along the ventro-lateral aspect of the bodies of the last three thoracic and the lumbar vertebræ.

Origin.—The bodies of the last three thoracic and first four or five lumbar vertebræ, and the vertebral ends of the sixteenth and seventeenth ribs.

Insertion.—The psoas tubercle on the shaft of the ilium.

Action.—To flex the pelvis on the loins, or to incline it laterally.

Structure.—The muscle arises by a series of digitations which pass backward and outward to be inserted at an acute angle on the tendon. The latter lies along the outer border of the fleshy portion and is flattened. It appears on the surface of the muscle at the third lumbar process and increases gradually in width until it reaches the pelvic inlet, where it becomes narrower.

Relations.—The ventral surface of the thoracic portion of the muscle is related to the pleura, crura of the diaphragm, and sympathetic nerve. In the abdomen, the chief ventral relations are the peritoneum, the vena cava (right side), the aorta and left kidney (left side), the sympathetic nerves, and the ureters. Dorsally, the chief relations are the vertebræ, the psoas major, and lumbar nerves. Near its insertion the tendon is crossed internally by the external iliac artery, and externally by the femoral nerve.

Blood-supply.—Intercostal and lumbar arteries.

Nerve-supply.—Lumbar nerves.

2. Psoas major (s. magnus).—This is much larger than the preceding muscle, by which it is partly covered. It is triangular, with the base anterior.

Origin.—The ventral surfaces of the vertebral ends of the last two ribs and the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebræ.

Insertion.—The internal trochanter of the femur, by a common tendon with the iliacus.

Action.—To flex the hip joint and to rotate the thigh outward.

Structure.—The origin of the muscle is fleshy, the belly being in general flattened, thick in its middle, thin at its edges. The thoracic portion is small, the abdominal part much thicker and wider, extending laterally beyond the extremities of the lumbar transverse processes. From the lumbo-sacral articulation it lies in a deep groove formed in the iliacus (with which it is partly united), becomes smaller and rounded, and passes downward and backward to terminate by a strong tendon common to it and the iliacus.^[62]

Relations.—Dorsally, the last two ribs and thoracic vertebræ, the lumbar vertebræ, the internal intercostals, quadratus lumborum, longissimus dorsi, and iliacus, and the lumbar vessels and nerves; ventrally, the pleura and peritoneum, the iliac fascia, inguinal ligament, the diaphragm, psoas minor, and sartorius, the kidneys, the spleen, the intestine (duodenum, cæcum, etc.) and the circumflex iliac vessels.

Blood-supply.—Lumbar and circumflex iliac arteries.

Nerve-supply.—Lumbar and femoral nerves.

3. Iliacus.—This muscle covers the ventral surface of the ilium external to the sacro-iliac articulation, and extends outward beyond the external border of the bone, underneath the middle gluteus.

Origin.—The ventral surface of the ilium external to the ilio-pectineal line, the ventral sacro-iliac ligament, the wing of the sacrum, and the tendon of the psoas minor.

Insertion.—The internal trochanter of the femur, by a common tendon with the psoas major.

Action.—To flex the hip joint and to rotate the thigh outward.

Structure.—The belly of the muscle is so deeply grooved for the psoas major as to give the appearance of being completely divided into outer and inner portions. When the psoas is removed, it is seen, however, that the two heads are not entirely separated. The outer, larger head arises from the wing of the ilium chiefly; the inner, smaller head arises chiefly from a small area on the shaft of the ilium, between the psoas tubercle and the depression for the inner tendon of the rectus femoris, and from the tendon of the psoas minor. The two portions inclose the psoas major in front of the hip joint.

Relations.—Dorsally, the ilium, sacrum, sacro-iliac articulation, the gluteus medius, the ilio-lumbar and external circumflex vessels; ventrally, the iliac fascia, inguinal ligament, the psoas major, sartorius, and abdominal muscles. At the hip joint the chief relations are: internally, the femoral vessels, the femoral nerve, and the sartorius muscle; externally, the rectus femoris and tensor fasciæ latæ; in front, the abdominal muscles; behind, the hip joint.

Blood-supply.—Lumbar, circumflex iliac, and deep femoral arteries.

Nerve-supply.—Lumbar and femoral nerves.

4. Quadratus lumborum.—This thin muscle lies on the outer part of the ventral surfaces of the lumbar transverse processes.

Origin.—The ventral surface of the upper part of the last two ribs and the lumbar transverse processes.

Insertion.—The ventral surface of the wing of the sacrum and the ventral sacro-iliac ligament.

Action.—Acting together, to fix the last two ribs and the lumbar vertebræ; acting singly, to produce lateral flexion of the loins.

Structure.—The muscle is pennate, and is curved with the convexity outward. It is thin, largely mixed with tendinous fibers, and is, in general, little developed in the horse in comparison with some of the other animals (e. g., dog, sheep).

Relations.—Ventrally, the psoas major and the last intercostal and first three lumbar nerves; dorsally, the last two ribs, the lumbar transverse processes, and the lateral branches of the lumbar arteries.

Blood-supply.—Lumbar arteries.

Nerve-supply.—Lumbar nerves.

5. Intertransversales lumborum (M. intertransversarii lumborum).—These are described with the other spinal muscles. (See p. 238.)

II. THE EXTERNAL MUSCLES OF THE HIP AND THIGH

Under this head will be described the muscles of the outer surface of the pelvis and thigh, and those which form the posterior contour of the latter. They are given in the order in which they may be conveniently examined.

1. Tensor fasciæ latæ (Fig. 178).—This is the most anterior muscle of the superficial layer. It is triangular in form, with its apex at the external angle of the ilium.

Origin.—The external angle of the ilium.

Insertion.—The fascia lata, and thus indirectly to the patella, the external straight ligament, and the crest of the tibia.

Action.—To tense the fascia lata, flex the hip joint, and extend the stifle joint.

Structure.—The muscle arises by a rather small head, about two inches (ca. 5 cm.) wide, on the antero-inferior eminence of the external angle of the ilium. Below this the belly spreads out and terminates about midway between the point of the hip and the stifle in the aponeurosis. The belly fuses to a considerable extent with the superficial gluteus. The aponeurosis fuses with the fascia lata, and detaches a lamina which passes with the tendon of insertion of the superficial gluteus to the external border of the femur.

Relations.—Externally, the skin and fascia; internally, the obliquus abdominis externus, the iliacus, superficial gluteus, rectus femoris, and vastus externus, branches of the circumflex iliac, ilio-lumbar, and iliaco-femoral arteries, and the anterior gluteal nerve; anteriorly, the precrural lymph glands. A considerable quantity of connective tissue is found between the deep face of the muscle and the abdominal wall.

Blood-supply.—Circumflex iliac, ilio-lumbar, and iliaco-femoral arteries.

Nerve-supply.—Anterior gluteal nerve.

2. Gluteus superficialis (Figs. 178, 199) (Superficial gluteus; gluteus externus).—This muscle lies behind and partly underneath the tensor fasciæ latæ. It is triangular and consists of an anterior and a posterior head united by the gluteal fascia.

Origin.—(1) The external angle and the adjacent part of the external border of the ilium (anterior head); (2) the gluteal fascia (posterior head).

Insertion.—The third (external) trochanter of the femur.

Action.—To abduct the limb, flex the hip joint, and tense the gluteal fascia.

Structure.—The anterior head of the muscle is not completely separable (except artificially) from the tensor fasciæ latæ. The attachment to the border of the ilium is by means of an intermuscular septum, which passes beneath the thick outer border of the gluteus medius. The posterior head arises from the deep face of the gluteal fascia, and so indirectly from the dorsal sacro-iliac ligament. The two heads unite and terminate on a strong flat tendon, which is inserted into the edge of the third trochanter of the femur, beneath the biceps femoris.

Relations.—Superficially, the skin, fascia, and biceps femoris; deeply, the gluteus medius, iliacus, rectus femoris, and branches of the iliaco-femoral artery; in front, the tensor fasciæ latæ; behind, the biceps femoris.

Blood-supply.—Gluteal and iliaco-femoral arteries.

Nerve-supply.—Anterior gluteal nerve.

3. Gluteus medius (Figs. 178, 179) (Middle gluteus; gluteus maximus).—This is a very large muscle which covers the dorsal surface of the ilium and the greater part of the lateral wall of the pelvis, and extends forward also on the lumbar part of the longissimus.

Origin.—(1) The aponeurosis of the longissimus, as far forward as the first lumbar vertebra; (2) the gluteal or dorsal surface and internal and external angles of the ilium; (3) the dorsal and lateral sacro-iliac and sacro-sciatic ligaments, and the gluteal fascia.

Insertion.—(1) The summit of the trochanter major of the femur; (2) the crest below the trochanter; (3) the outer aspect of the trochanteric ridge.

Action.—To extend the hip joint and abduct the limb. By its connection with the longissimus a muscular mass is formed which is one of the chief factors in rearing, kicking, and propulsion.

Structure.—The anterior extremity of the muscle is relatively thin, and lies in a depression on the surface of the longissimus, from the strong aponeurosis of which the fibers take origin. The pelvic portion of the muscle is very voluminous, and forms the bulk of the muscular mass which gives the haunch its rounded contour. This part of the muscle is intersected by several tendinous sheets. One of these is particularly distinct, and is attached to the gluteal line on the ilium. This divides the muscle incompletely into superficial and deep strata. The superficial part is inserted by a strong tendon into the summit of the great trochanter, and by a pointed fleshy mass with a tendinous border into the trochanteric ridge. The deep part (Gluteus accessorius) is smaller, and arises entirely from the ilium between the gluteal line and the external angle (Fig. 455). It has a strong flat tendon which passes over the convexity of the trochanter to be inserted into the crest below it. The convexity is covered with cartilage, and the trochanteric bursa (Bursa trochanterica) is interposed between the tendon and the cartilage.^[63]

Relations.—Superficially, the skin, lumbo-dorsal and gluteal fasciæ, the tensor fasciæ latæ, gluteus superficialis, and biceps femoris; deeply, the longissimus, the ilium, sacro-iliac and sacro-sciatic ligaments, the gluteus profundus, iliacus and rectus femoris, the iliaco-femoral artery, the gluteal and internal pudic vessels and nerves, and the great sciatic nerve.

Blood-supply.—Gluteal, ilio-lumbar, lumbar, and iliaco-femoral arteries.

Nerve-supply.—Gluteal nerves.

4. Gluteus profundus (Deep gluteus; gluteus internus; scansorius).—This much smaller, quadrilateral muscle lies under the posterior part of the preceding muscle, and extends over the hip joint, from the superior ischiatic spine to the anterior part of the great trochanter (Fig. 455).

Origin.—The superior ischiatic spine and the adjacent part of the shaft of the ilium.

Insertion.—The edge of the anterior part or convexity of the trochanter major of the femur.

Action.—To abduct the thigh and to rotate it inward.

Structure.—The muscle is short and thick and contains numerous tendinous intersections. The fibers are directed almost transversely outward over the capsule of the hip joint and converge at the convexity of the trochanter.

Relations.—Superficially, the gluteus medius and branches of the gluteal vessels and nerves; deeply, the shaft of the ilium, the hip joint, and the rectus femoris and capsularis.

Blood-supply.—Gluteal artery.

Nerve-supply.—Anterior gluteal nerve.

5. Biceps femoris (Gluteo-biceps s. paramero-biceps).—This large muscle lies behind and in part upon the superficial and middle glutei. It extends in a curved direction from the sacral and coccygeal spines to the outer surface of the stifle and leg (Figs. 178, 199, 200, 201, 202).

Origin.—(1) The dorsal sacro-iliac ligament, the gluteal and coccygeal fasciæ, and the intermuscular septum between this muscle and the semitendinosus; (2) the tuber ischii.

Insertion.—(1) A tubercle on the posterior surface of the femur near the external trochanter; (2) the anterior surface and external straight ligament of the patella; (3) the tibial crest; (4) the anterior and internal surface of the tuber calcis.

Action.—The action is somewhat complex, because the muscle is composed of three portions, has several points of insertion, and acts on all the joints of the limb except those of the digit. The general action is to extend the limb, as in propelling the body, rearing or kicking, and to abduct it. The anterior part, by its attachment to the posterior surface of the femur and to the patella, would extend the stifle and hip joints and abduct the limb. The middle part, being inserted chiefly on the tibial crest and the external straight ligament, would extend the hip, and, with the semitendinosus, flex the stifle. The posterior part, by virtue of its attachment to the tuber calcis, assists in extending the hock.

Structure.—The muscle has two heads of origin:^[64] The long or vertebral head arises chiefly from the dorsal and lateral sacro-iliac ligaments, the coccygeal fascia, and the intermuscular septum. There is often a large bursa between this head and the trochanter major. The short or ischiatic head arises by a strong tendon from the ventral spine on the tuber ischii. They unite, and a short tendon is detached from the deep face of the muscle, to be inserted into the posterior surface of the femur near the third trochanter (Fig. 455), a bursa being interposed between the tendon and the bone. The muscle then divides into three portions, which terminate on a strong aponeurosis over the junction of the thigh and leg. The anterior branch is directed toward the patella, the middle toward the tibial crest, while the posterior one assists in the formation of the posterior contour of the limb. The aponeurosis blends with the deep layer of the fascia cruris, as already described. A synovial bursa occurs under the patellar insertion.

Relations.—Superficially, the skin and fascia; deeply, the sacro-iliac and sacro-sciatic ligaments, the coccygeal fascia, the femur, the obturator, gemellus, quadratus femoris, adductor, semimembranosus, vastus externus, and gastrocnemius muscles, branches of the lateral sacral, gluteal, obturator, femoral and deep femoral vessels, the great sciatic, tibial, peroneal, and posterior gluteal nerves; in front, the superficial and middle glutei; behind and internally, the semitendinosus.

Blood-supply.—Gluteal, obturator, and femoro-popliteal arteries.

Nerve-supply.—Posterior gluteal and great sciatic nerves.

6. Semitendinosus (Biceps rotator tibialis).—This is a long muscle which extends from the first two coccygeal vertebræ to the proximal third of the inner surface of the tibia. It lies at first behind the biceps, then passes downward on the back of the thigh, between that muscle and the semimembranosus (Figs. 178, 179, 199). It has two heads of origin.

Origin.—(1) The transverse processes of the first and second coccygeal vertebræ, the coccygeal fascia, and the intermuscular septum between this muscle and the biceps femoris; (2) the ventral surface of the tuber ischii.

Insertion.—(1) The tibial crest; (2) the crural fascia and the tuber calcis.

Action.—To flex the stifle and rotate the leg inward; also to extend the hip and hock joints, acting with the biceps and semimembranosus in propulsion of the trunk, rearing, etc.

Structure.—The long or vertebral head is small at its origin, but becomes larger by the accession of fibers arising on the intermuscular septum. Below the tuber ischii it is joined by the short head, which arises partly by fleshy fibers, partly by a common tendon with the biceps. The muscle then passes downward on the back of the thigh, and terminates on a wide tendon on the inner surface of the proximal third of the leg. A distinct band passes forward to be inserted on the tibial crest (a bursa lying between the tendon and the tibia), part fuses with the fascia of the leg, while the remainder joins the biceps tendon and concurs in the formation of the tendinous band, which, as before described, terminates on the tuber calcis (Fig. 458). A bursa may occur under the long head where it passes over the tuber ischii.

Relations.—Externally, the skin and fascia, the biceps, and the internal head of the gastrocnemius; internally, the coccygeal fascia, the sacro-sciatic ligament, the semimembranosus; anteriorly, the biceps femoris, branches of the femoral artery, and the great sciatic nerve.

Blood-supply.—Posterior gluteal, obturator, and femoro-popliteal arteries.

Nerve-supply.—Posterior gluteal and great sciatic nerves.

7. Semimembranosus^[65] (Figs. 179, 186, 199, 451).—This muscle lies on the inner surface of the preceding muscle and the gastrocnemius, and has two heads of origin.

Origin.—(1) The posterior border of the sacro-sciatic ligament; (2) the ventral surface of the tuber ischii.

Insertion.—The internal epicondyle of the femur, behind the lateral ligament.

Action.—To extend the hip joint and to adduct the limb.

Structure.—The long head, small and pointed above, extends toward the root of the tail, fusing with the sacro-sciatic ligament. Passing downward, it becomes larger and covers in part the posterior aspect of the tuber ischii. A bursa may be found here. Below this it joins the short head, which is much larger. The large belly so formed passes downward and forward, covered in great part by the gracilis, and terminates on a short, flat tendon of insertion at the distal end of the femur.

Relations.—The upper part of the muscle assists in forming the lateral boundary of the pelvic outlet. It is related posteriorly and externally to the skin and fascia and the semitendinosus; internally, to the anus and its muscles, the vulva in the female, and the internal pudic artery and nerve (Figs. 452, 453). Below the pelvis the chief relations are: externally, the semitendinosus, biceps, and gastrocnemius, branches of the obturator, femoral, and femoro-popliteal arteries, and the great sciatic nerve and its chief branches; internally, the crus penis and ischio-cavernosus muscle (in the male), and the gracilis; in front, the adductor and the femoral vessels; behind, the skin and fascia.

Blood-supply.—Obturator and femoral arteries.

Nerve-supply.—Great sciatic nerve.

IV. THE INTERNAL MUSCLES OF THE THIGH

The muscles of this group are arranged in three layers.

First Layer

1. Sartorius (Figs. 180, 202, 203).—This long and rather narrow muscle is the most anterior one of the first layer. It extends from the sublumbar region to the lower and inner part of the stifle.

Origin.—The iliac fascia and the tendon of the psoas minor.

Insertion.—The internal straight ligament of the patella and the adjacent part of the tuberosity of the tibia.

Action.—To flex the hip joint and adduct the limb.

Structure.—The muscle is very thin at its origin, but becomes thicker and narrower as it passes downward and a little backward. It terminates near the stifle joint on an aponeurosis which blends with that of the gracilis and with the fascia of the leg.

Relations.—Superficially, the inguinal (Poupart’s) ligament, the abdominal muscles, the skin and fascia, and the saphenous vessels and nerve; deeply, the ilio-psoas, quadriceps femoris, and adductor. It forms the anterior boundary of the femoral canal, in which the femoral artery and vein and the deep inguinal lymph glands are situated (Fig. 451).

Blood-supply.—Femoral artery.

Nerve-supply.—Femoral and saphenous nerves.

2. Gracilis (Figs. 186, 199, 202, 203).—This is a wide, flat, quadrilateral muscle, situated behind the sartorius, which it exceeds greatly in extent.

Origin.—The middle third of the pelvic symphysis, the prepubic tendon and pubo-femoral ligament, and the ventral surface of the pubis behind the prepubic tendon.

Insertion.—The internal straight ligament of the patella, the internal surface of the tibia in front of the lateral ligament of the stifle joint, and the fascia of the leg.

Action.—To adduct the limb. It may also rotate it inward.

Structure.—The muscle arises by a strong tendon, chiefly in common with the opposite muscle. Its direct attachment to the ventral surface of the pelvis is not so extensive as a superficial inspection would suggest. The origin of the muscle presents anteriorly a round perforation for the passage of the external pudic vein. The belly is composed of parallel bundles, and is marked by a superficial furrow which, however, does not indicate a muscular division. It terminates on the inner surface of the stifle on a thin wide tendon which blends in front with that of the sartorius, below with the crural fascia.

Relations.—Superficially, the skin and fascia, the penis or mammary gland, and the saphenous vessels and nerve; deeply, the pectineus, adductor, semimembranosus and semitendinosus, and, at the middle of the femur, the femoral vessels; anteriorly, the sartorius. In the upper third of the thigh the sartorius and gracilis are separated by a triangular interval (femoral triangle), in which lie the deep inguinal lymph glands and the femoral vessels.

Blood-supply.—Femoral and deep femoral arteries.

Nerve-supply.—Obturator and saphenous nerves.

Second Layer

1. Pectineus (Figs. 180, 451, 456).—This muscle is fusiform and extends from the anterior border of the pubis to the middle of the inner border of the femur.

Origin.—The prepubic tendon, the pubo-femoral ligament, and the anterior border of the pubis.

Insertion.—The middle of the internal border of the femur, near the nutrient foramen.

Action.—To adduct the limb and flex the hip joint.

Structure.—The belly is cylindrical and contains little fibrous tissue. Its origin is perforated by the pubo-femoral ligament, and is thus divided into two unequal parts. The large upper part arises mainly from the prepubic tendon—only a very small part gaining direct attachment to the pubis. The small lower part does not reach the bone. The insertion is pointed and tendinous.

Relations.—Superficially, the gracilis; deeply, the femur, the vastus internus, the terminal tendon of the psoas major and iliacus, and the deep femoral artery; anteriorly, the sartorius, the femoral vessels, the saphenous nerve, and the deep inguinal lymph glands; posteriorly, the adductor, obturator externus, and quadratus femoris, and the obturator nerve (anterior division).

Blood-supply.—Femoral and deep femoral arteries.

Nerve-supply.—Femoral and obturator nerves.

The femoral canal is exposed in the dissection of the preceding muscles (Figs. 200, 451). It is bounded anteriorly by the sartorius, posteriorly by the pectineus, and externally by the iliacus and vastus internus. Its internal wall is formed by the femoral fascia and the gracilis. Its upper or abdominal opening (Lacuna vasorum) lies behind and a little internal to the internal inguinal ring and is bounded anteriorly by the inguinal ligament, posteriorly by the anterior border of the pubis, and externally by the tendon of the psoas minor. The canal terminates below at the insertion of the pectineus. It contains the deep inguinal lymph glands, the femoral artery and vein, and the saphenous nerve.

2. Adductor^[66] (Figs. 179, 186, 451) (Great and small adductors of the thigh).—This fleshy, prismatic muscle lies behind the pectineus and vastus internus. It extends downward and forward from the ventral surface of the pelvis to the internal condyle of the femur.

Origin.—The ventral surface of the pubis and ischium and the tendon of the gracilis.

Insertion.—(1) The posterior surface of the femur from the level of the external trochanter to the groove for the femoral vessels; (2) the internal epicondyle of the femur and the internal lateral ligament of the stifle joint.

Action.—To adduct the limb and assist in extending the hip joint. It may also rotate the femur outward.

Structure.—It is almost entirely fleshy, and is composed of parallel bundles united rather loosely. It is usually possible to separate from the principal mass a small anterior short portion,^[67] which is inserted into the femur behind the pectineus. The principal mass^[68] is perforated below its middle by the femoral vessels, and is thus divided into two branches. The outer branch is inserted into the back of the femur with the short portion, while the inner branch is attached to the internal epicondyle and lateral ligament. There is often a superficial slip which reaches the internal straight patellar ligament. Some fibers pass under the lateral ligament and end on the tendon of the semimembranosus.

Relations.—Internally, the gracilis, and branches of the femoral artery and of the obturator nerve; externally, the femur, the obturator externus, quadratus femoris, biceps femoris, and gastrocnemius, and the femoral, deep femoral, and obturator arteries; anteriorly, the pectineus, vastus internus, and a large branch of the obturator nerve; posteriorly, the semimembranosus and the great sciatic nerve.

Blood-supply.—Femoral, deep femoral, and obturator arteries.

Nerve-supply.—Obturator nerve.

3. Semimembranosus.—Described on p. 280.

Third Layer

1. Quadratus femoris (Ischio-femoralis).—This is a narrow, flat muscle, which lies under cover of the upper part of the adductor (Figs. 455, 456).

Origin.—The ventral surface of the ischium, just in front of the semimembranosus.

Insertion.—An oblique line on the posterior surface of the femur, near the lower part of the internal trochanter.

Action.—To extend the hip joint, and to adduct the thigh and rotate it outward.

Structure.—It is composed of parallel bundles of fibers directed downward, forward, and outward.

Relations.—Internally, the adductor, semimembranosus, and the obturator vessels; externally, the obturator externus and biceps femoris, the deep femoral artery, and the great sciatic nerve.

Blood-supply.—Deep femoral and obturator arteries.

Nerve-supply.—Great sciatic nerve.

2. Obturator Externus (Fig. 456).—This is a pyramidal muscle which extends across the back of the hip joint from the obturator foramen to the trochanteric fossa.

Origin.—The ventral surface of the pubis and ischium, and the margin of the obturator foramen.

Insertion.—The trochanteric fossa.

Action.—To adduct the thigh and to rotate it outward.

Structure.—It is almost entirely fleshy, the muscle-bundles being rather loosely connected. The insertion is pointed, flattened, and partly tendinous. The origin is perforated by the obturator vessels and nerve.

Relations.—Internally, the adductor and quadratus femoris and the deep femoral vessels; externally, the gemellus, the tendon of the obturator internus, the biceps femoris, and the great sciatic nerve; anteriorly, the hip joint, the pectineus, and the external pudic vein.

Blood-supply.—Deep femoral and obturator arteries.

Nerve-supply.—Obturator nerve.

3. Obturator internus (Fig. 451).—This arises by two heads within the pelvic cavity, the tendon emerging through the lesser sciatic foramen.

Origin.—(1) The pelvic surface of the pubis and ischium around the obturator foramen; (2) the pelvic surface of the shaft of the ilium and the wing of the sacrum.

Insertion.—The trochanteric fossa.

Action.—To rotate the femur outward.

Structure.—The ischio-pubic head lies on the pelvic floor and covers the obturator foramen. It is thin and fan-shaped. The iliac head extends along the lateral wall of the pelvis, and is pennate, with a central tendon throughout. Both terminate on a flat tendon which passes outward through the lesser sciatic foramen to be inserted into the trochanteric fossa. A synovial bursa facilitates the play of the tendon over the external border of the ischium.^[69]

Relations.—The pelvic surface is covered by the pelvic fascia and the peritoneum. The obturator vessels and nerve lie between the two heads, and the internal pudic vessels and nerve lie along the dorsal edge of the iliac head.

Blood-supply.—Obturator and internal pudic arteries.

Nerve-supply.—Great sciatic nerve.

4. Gemellus^[70] (Fig. 455).—This is a thin, triangular muscle, which extends from the external border of the ischium to the trochanteric fossa.

Origin.—The external border of the ischium near the ischiatic spine.

Insertion.—The trochanteric fossa.

Action.—To rotate the femur outward.

Structure.—Fleshy, some fibers being inserted into the tendon of the obturator internus.

Relations.—Dorsally, the tendon of the obturator internus and the gluteus profundus; ventrally, the obturator externus.

Blood-supply.—Obturator artery.

Nerve-supply.—Sciatic nerve.

III. ANTERIOR MUSCLES OF THE THIGH

This group consists of the sartorius, quadriceps femoris, and capsularis.

1. Sartorius.—This is described on p. 281.

2. Quadriceps femoris (Figs. 179, 186, 200) (Crural triceps).—This constitutes the large muscular mass which covers the front and sides of the femur. It has four heads, one of which, the rectus, arises from the ilium; the other three arise from the femur. All are inserted into the patella.

(1) Rectus femoris.—This is fusiform and rounded. It arises by two tendons.

Origin.—Two depressions on the shaft of the ilium above and in front of the acetabulum.

Insertion.—The base and anterior surface of the patella.

Action.—To extend the stifle joint and to flex the hip joint.

Structure.—It has two short strong tendons of origin; beneath the outer one is a bursa. The belly is rounded and rests in a groove formed by the other portions of the quadriceps. Its sides are covered by a strong tendinous layer which furnishes insertion to fibers of the vasti. The tendon of insertion is formed by the fusion of these tendinous layers on the lower part of the muscle. The lower portion of the muscle is pennate, the fibers on either side converging on the tendon at an acute angle.

Relations.—Internally, the iliacus, sartorius, and vastus internus; externally, the tensor fasciæ latæ, glutei, and vastus externus; posteriorly, the hip joint and the vastus intermedius; anteriorly, the fascia lata and the skin. The anterior femoral artery and branches of the femoral nerve descend into the interspace between the upper part of the rectus and the vastus internus; similarly, the iliaco-femoral artery dips in between the rectus femoris and vastus externus.

Blood-supply.—Femoral and iliaco-femoral arteries.

Nerve-supply.—Femoral nerve.

(2) Vastus externus (s. lateralis).—This lies on the outer surface of the thigh, extending from the great trochanter to the patella. It is thick and wide in its upper part, and becomes much thinner and narrow below.