A text-book of veterinary anatomy

The dorso-lateral borders separate the dorsal and lateral surfaces. They give attachment to the lateral branches of the sternal ligament.

The ventral border forms the prominent keel-like crest of the sternum (Crista sterni) which may be felt in the living animal; it fades out behind.

The anterior extremity or manubrium sterni^[5] can be distinctly felt in the central furrow of the breast. It consists of a laterally compressed cartilaginous prolongation, commonly called the cariniform cartilage. Its lateral surfaces are flat and furnish attachment to muscles of the breast and neck. The ventral border is rounded, and is continued backward on the body of the bone. The dorsal border is concave and has an articular cavity for the first pair of costal cartilages.

The posterior extremity is formed by the xiphoid or ensiform cartilage (Processus xiphoideus). This is a thin plate, connected in front with the last bony segment by a relatively thick, narrow neck, and expanding in nearly circular form behind and laterally. Its dorsal surface is concave, and gives attachment to the diaphragm. The ventral surface is convex. The free margin is very thin.

Development.—At birth the sternum of the horse consists of seven bony segments or sternebræ united by intersternebral cartilages. The last two sternebræ fuse in the second month, but the others do not usually unite completely even in old age. The sternebræ consist of very vascular spongy bone covered by a very thin layer of compact substance. The adult sternum thus consists to a very considerable extent of persisting cartilage, viz., the intersternebral cartilages, the ventral keel, and the extremities; in old age these undergo partial ossification.

The bony thorax of the horse is remarkably compressed laterally in its anterior part, but widens greatly behind. The anterior aperture is oval and very narrow below; in a horse of medium size its greatest width is about 4 inches (10 cm.), and its height 7 to 8 inches (ca. 18 to 20 cm.). The ventral wall or floor is about 10 inches (40 cm.) long, and the dorsal wall or roof about 38 to 40 inches (95 to 100 cm.) long. The height from the last segment of the sternum to the seventh or eighth thoracic vertebra is about twice that of the anterior aperture; this is due to the obliquity and divergence of the roof and floor. The greatest width of the posterior aperture is about 20 to 24 inches (50 to 60 cm.). The intercostal spaces increase in width from the first to the seventh or eighth, and then diminish. Their average width is about 1¼ to 1½ inches (3 to 3.5 cm.).

The Bones of the Skull

(A) BONES OF THE CRANIUM

The bones of the cranium (Ossa cranii) are the Occipital, Sphenoid, Ethmoid, Interparietal, Parietal, Frontal, and Temporal. The first four are single, the others paired.

The Occipital Bone

The occipital bone (Os occipitale) is situated at the posterior part of the cranium, of which it forms the posterior wall and part of the ventral wall or base.^[6]

Its lower part is perforated centrally by a large, almost circular opening, the foramen magnum (Foramen occipitale magnum), at which the brain and spinal cord join. The foramen is bounded laterally and dorsally by the lateral parts of the bone, and ventrally by the basilar part or process. Above the lateral parts—but not entering into the formation of the foramen magnum—is the squamous part.

The lateral parts (Partes laterales) bear the occipital condyles (Condyli occipitales), which articulate with the atlas. The condyles are obliquely placed, wide apart dorsally, and separated by a small interval ventrally. The articular surface is curved so sharply in the dorso-ventral direction as to form a blunt ridge externally. The cranial surface is concave and smooth. External to the condyle is the paramastoid or styloid process (Processus jugularis), a strong flattened bar of bone which projects downward and backward; its external surface is convex and roughened for muscular attachment. Between the root of this process and the condyle is a smooth depression, the condyloid fossa (Fossa condyloidea inferior); in this is the hypoglossal foramen (Foramen hypoglossi), which transmits the nerve of like name.

The basilar part or process (Pars basilaris) is a strong, somewhat prismatic bar which extends forward from the ventral margin of the foramen magnum. It is much narrower in front than behind. The ventral surface is rounded. The cranial surface is concave and smooth; its posterior part, supports the medulla, and its anterior part has a shallow cavity on which the pons rests. The lateral borders are thin and sharp, and form the inner margin of the foramen lacerum (Foramen lacerum et jugulare). The anterior end has, in the young subject, a semicircular, flat, pitted surface which is attached to the body of the sphenoid bone by a layer of cartilage; in the adult there is complete fusion. On the ventral aspect of the junction are tubercles for the attachment of the ventral straight muscles of the head.

The squamous part (Squama occipitalis) is the somewhat quadrilateral mass situated above the lateral portions, from which it remains distinct till the second year. The outer surface is crossed by a very prominent ridge, the occipital crest; the middle part of this is thick, transverse in direction, and forms the highest point of the skull when the head is in the ordinary position; laterally it becomes thinner and runs downward and forward to join the temporal crest.^[7] The crest divides the surface into two very unequal parts; the small anterior area (Planum parietale) presents a median ridge which is the posterior part of the external sagittal crest; the large area below the crest (Planum nuchale) also has a central eminence, the external occipital protuberance, on the sides of which the funicular part of the ligamentum nuchæ is attached. The internal surface is concave and presents a deep central depression and two shallower lateral ones which adapt it to the surface of the cerebellum.

The occipital bone is connected by suture with the interparietal, two parietals, and two temporals, and by synchondrosis with the sphenoid; the condyles articulate with the atlas.

Development.—The occipital ossifies in cartilage from four centers, and consists at birth of four pieces as described above.^[8] The lateral parts unite with the basilar at three to four months, and with the squama in the second year, when the bone is consolidated.

The parieto-occipital suture and the spheno-occipital synchondrosis are obliterated about the fifth year usually. The temporo-occipital suture partially ossifies in old subjects.

The Sphenoid Bone

The sphenoid bone (Os sphenoidale) is situated in the base of the cranium, its central part lying in front of the basilar part of the occipital. It consists of a central part, the body, two pairs of wings, and two pterygoid processes.

The body (Corpus) is a cylindrical bar, flattened dorso-ventrally, and wider in front than behind. Its ventral surface (Facies externa) is convex in the transverse direction; and its anterior part is concealed to a large extent by the vomer and pterygoid bones. The cerebral surface (Facies cerebralis) presents the following features: (1) In front is a raised, flattened part which is subdivided by a median elevation into two slightly concave lateral areas; this part has a posterior, thin, free margin (Limbus sphenoidalis), which overlies the entrance to the optic foramina. (2) Just behind this and at a lower level is a smooth transverse depression, the optic groove (Sulcus chiasmatis), on which the optic chiasma rests. (3) From each end of this groove the optic foramen passes forward and outward to terminate in the posterior part of the orbital fossa.^[9] (4) Near the posterior end is a central depression, the hypophyseal or pituitary fossa (Fossa hypophysea), which lodges the hypophysis cerebri or pituitary body. On each side of this is an ill-defined groove for the internal carotid artery and the cavernous sinus. The anterior end is expanded, and is excavated to form the sphenoidal sinuses. These cavities extend back as far as the optic groove, and are usually continuous in front with the cavities in the vertical parts of the palate bones; they are separated by a complete septum which is not always median.^[10] The posterior end is flat and is joined to the basilar part of the occipital; at the line of junction there is dorsally a transverse elevation, the spheno-occipital crest (Crista sphenooccipitalis).

The orbital wings (Alæ orbitales) curve upward and somewhat outward from the sides of the body of the presphenoid. Their inner or cerebral surfaces are concave, and are marked by digital impressions (Impressiones digitatæ) for the gyri of the cerebrum. The external surface is convex and is largely concealed by the overlapping temporal wing and the squamous temporal and frontal bones; a narrow part of it (Facies orbitalis) is uncovered on the inner wail of the orbital cavity at the sphenoidal notch of the frontal bone. The dorsal border unites with the frontal bone at the spheno-frontal suture. The anterior border joins the ethmoid at the spheno-ethmoidal suture; at its lower part it concurs with the frontal in the formation of the ethmoidal (or internal orbital) foramen. The posterior border is overlapped by the temporal wing and the squamous temporal. The root of the wing is perforated by the optic foramen. Immediately below and behind the latter (i. e., beneath the root) is the foramen lacerum orbitale or orbital fissure. Below this, and separated from it usually by a thin plate, is a larger opening, the foramen rotundum, which is bounded externally by the root of the pterygoid process. Behind these foramina is the pterygoid crest (Crista pterygoidea), which is continued downward and forward on the pterygoid process; on its upper part may be found the small and inconstant trochlear (or pathetic) foramen. Just behind the crest is the temporal foramen (For. alare parvum), through which the anterior deep temporal artery emerges from the alar canal of the pterygoid process.

The temporal wings (Alæ temporales) extend outward and somewhat upward from the body of the postsphenoid; they are irregularly quadrilateral in outline. The external surface (Facies temporalis) enters into the formation of the infratemporal fossa, and bears the pterygoid process on its anterior part; at the junction with the body there is a small groove for the pterygoid nerve. The internal surface (Facies cerebralis) presents, at the junction with the body, two longitudinal grooves (Sulci nervorum). The outer groove is the larger, and leads forward to the foramen rotundum; it contains the maxillary nerve. The inner groove conducts to the orbital fissure, and contains the third, sixth, and ophthalmic nerves. The outer groove is bounded externally by a thin overhanging crest, on which is a small groove for the fourth nerve. The remainder of the surface is concave and supports the pyriform lobe of the brain. The dorsal border joins the squamous temporal at the spheno-squamous suture. The anterior border joins the orbital wing. The posterior border forms the anterior boundary of the foramen lacerum; it presents three notches, which are (from within outward) the carotid, oval, and spinous (Incisura carotica, ovalis, spinosa). The angle of junction of the dorsal and posterior borders articulates with the parietal bone.

The pterygoid processes (Processus pterygoidei) arise from the temporal wings and the body. They project downward and forward, and curve outward at the lower part. The root is perforated by the alar canal (Canalis alaris),^[11] which transmits the internal maxillary artery. From this canal a branch leads upward and forward to open at the temporal foramen. The external surface is concave, and is marked by lines for muscular attachment. The internal surface is largely concealed by the overlapping palate and pterygoid bones, with which it concurs in the formation of the pterygoid or Vidian canal.

Development.—The sphenoid is ossified in cartilage, and consists in early life of two distinct parts, the presphenoid and postsphenoid. The former develops from two centers, one in each wing; the latter has three centers, one for the body and one for each wing. The pterygoid processes ossify from the centers of the temporal wings.

Variation.—The dorsal border of the orbital wing may come to the surface through a defect in the frontal bone at the place where the horn process is situated in animals which have frontal horns.

The Ethmoid Bone

The ethmoid (Os ethmoidale) is situated in front of the body and orbital wings of the sphenoid. It projects forward between the orbital plates of the frontal bones and enters into the formation of the cranial, nasal, and paranasal cavities.^[12] It consists of four parts—the cribriform plate, two lateral masses, and the perpendicular plate.

The cribriform plate (Lamina cribrosa) is a sieve-like partition between the cranial and nasal cavities. Its margin joins the orbital wings of the sphenoid laterally, and the cranial plate of the frontal bones dorsally. Its cranial surface is divided into two parts by a median ridge, the crista galli, which is the intracranial portion of the perpendicular plate. Each half forms a deep oval cavity, the ethmoidal or olfactory fossa, which lodges the olfactory bulb. The plate is perforated by numerous small foramina for the passage of the olfactory nerve filaments, and on either side is the much larger ethmoidal foramen. The nasal surface is convex, and has the lateral masses attached to it.

The lateral masses or labyrinth project forward from the cribriform plate into the posterior part of the nasal cavity, which they nearly fill. Each mass is somewhat conical in shape, with the base attached to half of the cribriform plate. The inner surface is separated by a narrow space from the perpendicular plate. The outer surface is convex and faces chiefly into the frontal and maxillary sinuses, but is attached behind to the inner wall of the orbital cavity; it is covered by a very thin layer of bone, the lamina papyracea. The mass consists of a large number of delicate, scroll-like plates of bone, termed ethmoturbinals or ethmoidal cells. These are attached to the lamina papyracea, and are separated by narrow intervals termed ethmoidal meatuses, which communicate with the nasal cavity. In the living animal the ethmoturbinals are covered with mucous membrane.

The lateral mass is a very complex structure, the arrangement of which may be studied on cross-sections of decalcified specimens with the mucous membrane retained. Each mass consists of six turbinals which extend almost to the perpendicular plate and are termed endoturbinals. These diminish in size from above downward; the largest is attached to the nasal bone, and is hence usually called the naso-turbinal or superior turbinal; the second is much smaller, and is very commonly termed the great ethmoid cell. Between the endoturbinals are twenty-one small ectoturbinals, and all are beset with secondary and tertiary coiled lamellæ.

The perpendicular plate or mesethmoid (Lamina perpendicularis) is median, and forms the posterior part of the septum nasi. Its lateral surfaces are nearly plane, but are marked below by some grooves and ridges; they are covered by the nasal mucous membrane. The anterior border is irregular and is continuous with the septal cartilage. The posterior border projects into the cranial cavity as a ridge, the crista galli. The dorsal border joins the frontal bones at their line of junction—the frontal suture. The ventral border is received into the groove of the vomer.

Development.—The ethmoid develops in cartilage from five centers, two for each lateral mass, and one for the perpendicular plate; from the latter ossification extends into the cribriform plate. At birth the perpendicular and cribriform plates are entirely cartilaginous. By the time ossification is complete the ethmoid has united with surrounding bones to such an extent that it cannot be separated intact for study.

The Interparietal Bone

This bone (Os interparietale) is centrally placed between the squamous part of the occipital and the parietal bones. It is usually described as a single bone, although it ossifies from two chief lateral centers, and is sometimes distinctly paired in skulls of young foals.

The external surface (Facies externa) is quadrilateral and is flat and smooth in the very young foal; later it presents the median external sagittal crest.

The internal surface (Facies cerebralis) presents the internal occipital protuberance, a three-sided process which projects downward and forward into the cranial cavity between the cerebral hemispheres and the cerebellum; it has three concave surfaces and three sharp borders which form part of the tentorium osseum.

The posterior border is thick; it joins the squamous part of the occipital bone. The lateral and anterior borders are united by suture with the parietal bones.

Development.—The interparietal ossifies in membrane from two chief lateral centers.^[13] It fuses first with the parietals, somewhat later with the occipital, but the period at which this union takes place is quite variable.

The Parietal Bones

The two parietal bones (Ossa parietalia) form the greater part of the roof of the cranium; they unite in the median line, forming the sagittal suture. Each is quadrilateral in outline and has two surfaces and four borders.

The external surface (Facies parietalis) is convex, and is marked by a more or less prominent curved line, the external sagittal crest; this is median in its posterior part, and is continuous with the crest of like name on the occipital bone; in front it curves outward and is continuous with the frontal crest. The surface external to the crest (Planum temporale) enters into the formation of the temporal fossa, and is roughened for the attachment of the temporal muscle.

The internal or cerebral surface (Facies cerebralis) is concave. It presents numerous digital impressions (Impressiones digitatæ) which correspond to the gyri of the cerebrum. There are also furrows (Sulci vasculosi) for the meningeal arteries. Along the inner border there is a sagittal groove (Sulcus sagittalis) for the superior longitudinal sinus.

The anterior border joins the frontal bone at the parieto-frontal suture (Sutura coronalis).

The posterior border meets the occipital bone at the parieto-occipital suture (Sutura lambdoidea). Below this junction it curves inward and concurs with the temporal bone in the formation of the parieto-temporal canal (Meatus temporalis). A transverse groove (Sulcus transversus) connects this canal with the sagittal sulcus.

The internal border is thick and serrated. It joins its fellow at the sagittal suture, and (in the young subject) meets the interparietal at the interparietal suture. The line of junction is marked internally by the internal sagittal crest (Crista sagittalis interna).

The external border is beveled and is overlapped by the squamous temporal bone, forming the parieto-temporal suture (Sutura parieto-squamosa). The angle of junction of the external and posterior borders articulates with the posterior angle of the temporal wing of the sphenoid.

Development.—Each parietal bone ossifies in membrane from a single center. In the young foal the central part of the bone is much more convex than in the adult and forms a prominence similar to the pronounced tuber parietale of the young child; the external sagittal crest is not present, and the external surface is smooth.

The sagittal suture is usually closed at four years, the parieto-occipital at five years, and the parieto-temporal at twelve to fifteen years.

The frontal bones (Ossa frontalia) are situated on the limits of the cranium and face, between the parietals behind and the nasal bones in front. Each is irregularly quadrilateral, and consists of frontal, orbital, and temporal parts.

The frontal part (Pars naso-frontalis) forms the basis of the forehead. Its external surface (Facies frontalis) is nearly flat, and is smooth and subcutaneous; it is separated from the temporal part by the external frontal crest (Crista frontalis externa). At the junction with the orbital part the supraorbital or zygomatic process (Proc. zygomaticus) curves outward and downward to join the zygomatic arch. The process partially separates the orbit from the temporal fossa; its root is perforated by the supraorbital foramen, or presents instead a notch on its anterior border; its upper surface is convex, while the lower or orbital surface is concave and smooth, forming a shallow fossa for the lacrimal gland (Fossa glandulæ lacrimalis). The internal surface enters into the formation of the cranial cavity and the frontal sinus. The cranial surface presents digital impressions for the cerebral gyri. The two plates of the bone separate and diverge in front, and thus inclose a large air-space which is part of the frontal sinus. The cranial plate curves downward and articulates with the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone; the facial plate extends forward and joins the nasal and lacrimal bones.

The orbital part (Pars orbitalis) forms the major part of the inner wall of the orbital cavity. It is separated from the frontal part by a prominent ridge which is part of the orbital margin. Its external or orbital surface is concave and smooth, and presents superiorly a small depression (Fovea trochlearis), which is bridged by a small bar of cartilage, around which the superior oblique muscle of the eye is reflected. The lower border concurs with the orbital wing of the sphenoid in the formation of the ethmoidal or internal orbital foramen. The internal surface faces into the frontal sinus and gives attachment to the lateral mass of the ethmoid.

The temporal part is separated from the orbital part by the deep sphenoidal notch (Incisura sphenoidalis), which is occupied by the orbital wing of the sphenoid. Its external surface forms part of the inner wall of the temporal fossa. The internal surface is largely covered by the orbital wing of the sphenoid in the young subject, but later forms part of the wall of the frontal sinus.

The principal connections of the frontal bone are as follows: (1) The inner border joins its fellow at the frontal suture. (2) The anterior border meets the nasal and lacrimal at the naso-frontal and fronto-lacrimal sutures. (3) Laterally it forms the spheno-frontal suture with the orbital wing of the sphenoid, and also joins the palate bone and maxilla. (4) Posteriorly it meets the parietal at the parieto-frontal (or coronal) suture, and articulates below this with the squamous temporal. (5) The extremity of the supraorbital process unites with the zygomatic process of the temporal bone.

Development.—Each ossifies in membrane from one center which appears in the root of the supraorbital process. In the new-born foal there is a slit between the cranial plate and the orbital and temporal plates which receives the cartilaginous margin of the orbital wing of the sphenoid.

The Temporal Bones

The temporal bone (Os temporale) forms the greater part of the lateral wall of the cranium. It is situated between the occipital behind, the parietal above, the frontal in front, and the sphenoid below. It consists of two distinct parts, squamous and petrous.

1. The squamous temporal (Squama temporalis) is a shell-like plate which has two surfaces and four borders.

The internal surface (Facies cerebralis) is largely overlapped by the surrounding bones, but its central part is free and presents digital impressions and vascular grooves.

The external surface (Facies temporalis) is convex, and enters into the formation of the temporal fossa. From its lower part there springs the zygomatic process (Processus zygomaticus), which forms the external boundary of the temporal fossa. It is at first directed outward, and is wide and flattened dorso-ventrally. It then turns forward, becomes narrower, and is twisted so that its surfaces are internal and external. Its anterior end is pointed and joins the zygomatic process of the malar bone, with which it forms the zygomatic arch (Arcus zygomaticus). The narrow anterior part has a convex outer surface and a concave inner one. Its upper border has a rough area for articulation with the supraorbital process of the frontal. Its lower border is wide and rough. The wide posterior part presents on its ventral face a surface for articulation with the condyle of the mandible. This surface consists of a transversely elongated condyle (Tuberculum articulare), behind which is the glenoid fossa (Fossa mandibularis). The fossa is limited behind by the postglenoid process, the anterior surface of which is articular. Behind this process is a fossa in which is the external opening of the parieto-temporal canal. The dorsal surface is concave and forms the outer boundary of the temporal fossa. The superior border is sinuous and is continuous behind with the temporal crest.

The posterior process (Processus posterior) springs from the posterior part of the squama. Its external surface is crossed by the temporal crest, which forms here the outer limit of the temporal fossa. The internal surface forms the outer boundary of the parieto-temporal canal, and is elsewhere applied to the petrous portion. It divides into two branches, upper and lower; the upper branch unites with the occipital bone, while the lower one curves downward behind the external auditory process and overlaps the mastoid process.

The superior border of the squamous temporal articulates with the parietal, forming the parieto-temporal suture. The inferior border joins the temporal wing of the sphenoid at the spheno-squamous suture. The anterior border unites with the frontal bone, and the posterior with the parietal.

2. The petrous temporal (Os petrosum) is placed between the occipital behind and the parietal in front, and is largely overlapped externally by the squamous temporal. It has the form of a four-sided pyramid, the base of which is ventral.

The external surface is mainly concealed by the squamous temporal, but two features are visible. A short tube of bone, the external auditory process, protrudes from the lowest part through the notch of the squamous temporal. The process is directed outward, upward, and a little forward. It gives attachment to the annular cartilage of the ear. Its lumen, the external auditory meatus (Meatus acusticus externus), conducts to the cavity of the middle ear (tympanum) in the dry skull, but is separated from it by the tympanic membrane in the natural state. The mastoid process projects ventrally in the interval between the posterior process of the squamous temporal and the root of the paramastoid (or styloid) process of the occipital bone; its outer surface is crossed by a curved groove which leads to the parieto-temporal canal.

The internal surface faces into the cerebellar fossa of the cranium. It is concave and smooth but irregular. In its lower part is the entrance to a short canal, the internal auditory meatus, which transmits the seventh and eighth cranial nerves.

The fundus of the meatus is divided by a crest into a superior and an inferior fossa. In the superior one is the origin of the facial canal, which curves through the bone and opens externally at the stylo-mastoid foramen; it transmits the facial (seventh cranial) nerve. The inferior fossa presents small foramina for the passage of fibers of the auditory (eighth cranial) nerve.

Behind the meatus and near the posterior margin of the surface is the slit-like opening of the aquæductus vestibuli, covered by a scale of bone. Below this is a narrow fissure, the orifice of the aquæductus cochleæ.

The anterior surface looks upward and forward. The outer part articulates with the parietal bone and the inner part faces into the cerebral fossa of the cranium. A sharp border, the petrosal crest (Crista petrosa), separates this surface from the inner one.

The posterior surface joins the lateral part of the occipital bone.

The base forms the outer boundary of the foramen lacerum basis cranii. It is very irregular and presents a number of important features. The hyoid process is a short rod which projects downward and forward below the base of the external auditory process, inclosed in a bony tube; it is connected by a bar of cartilage with the hyoid bone. The stylo-mastoid foramen is situated between the root of the hyoid process and the mastoid process; it is the external opening of the facial canal, through which the facial nerve emerges. The bulla ossea is a considerable eminence situated centrally; it is thin-walled and incloses a cavity which is part of the tympanum. The muscular process^[14] is a sharp spine which projects downward and forward from the anterior part of the base; it gives origin to the tensor and levator palati muscles. External to the root of the preceding is the small petro-tympanic or Glaserian fissure (Fissura petro-tympanica) for the passage of the chorda tympani nerve. The osseous Eustachian tube is a semicanal at the inner side of the root of the muscular process; it leads to the tympanum. At the inner side of the preceding is the slit-like orifice of the petrosal canal, which communicates with the facial canal.

The apex projects upward and backward between the squamous temporal and the occipital bone.

Development.—The petrous temporal may be regarded as consisting of petro-mastoid and tympanic parts. The latter includes the external auditory process, the bulla ossea, and the muscular process; it is developed in membrane. The petro-mastoid is developed in the cartilaginous ear capsule. Its petrous part consists of very dense bone which contains the labyrinth or internal ear and forms the inner wall of the tympanum.

The parieto-temporal canal (Meatus temporalis) is a continuation of the transverse groove which extends outward from the base of the tentorium osseum. It is directed downward, forward, and somewhat outward, and opens externally in front of the root of the auditory process. It is bounded by the squamous temporal externally, the petrous behind, and the parietal in front and internally. Several foramina open from it into the temporal fossa. It contains a large vein (Vena cerebralis dorsalis), the continuation of the transverse sinus of the dura mater.

The foramen lacerum basis cranii (Foramen lacerum et jugulare) is a large irregular opening in the cranial base, bounded internally by the basilar part of the occipital bone, externally by the petrous temporal, and in front by the temporal wing of the sphenoid. It consists of a large anterior part (Foramen lacerum anterius), and a narrow posterior part (Foramen lacerum posterius s. jugulare). It transmits the internal carotid artery, the middle meningeal artery, the mandibular, ninth, tenth, and eleventh cranial nerves, and the inferior cerebral vein.

In the fresh state the foramen is occupied by a dense fibrous membrane which is perforated by apertures for the various structures transmitted. Thus there are three openings in front for the internal carotid artery, the mandibular nerve, and the middle meningeal artery; these are (from within outward) the foramen caroticum, ovale, spinosum.

(B) BONES OF THE FACE

The bones of the face (Ossa faciei) are the Maxilla, Premaxilla, Palatine, Pterygoid, Nasal, Lacrimal, Malar, Superior Turbinal, Inferior Turbinal, Vomer, Mandible, and Hyoid. The last three are single, the others paired.

The maxillæ are the principal bones of the upper jaw and carry the upper cheek teeth. They are situated on the lateral aspect of the face, and articulate with almost all of the facial bones and the frontal and temporal also. For description each may be divided into a body and two processes.

The body (Corpus maxillæ) presents two surfaces, two borders, and two extremities. The external or facial surface (Facies lateralis) is somewhat concave in front and convex behind. On its posterior part is a horizontal ridge, the facial or zygomatic crest (Crista facialis); in a skull of medium size its anterior end is about an inch and a half (3 to 4 cm.) above the third or fourth cheek tooth, and it is continued behind by a corresponding ridge on the malar bone. About two inches (5 cm.) above and a little in front of the anterior end of the crest is the infraorbital foramen (Foramen infraorbitale); this is the external opening of the infraorbital canal.

In the young horse the anterior part of the surface is convex over the embedded parts of the teeth. As the latter are extruded the surface flattens and becomes concave in old subjects.

The internal or nasal surface (Facies nasalis) is concave dorso-ventrally; it forms the greater part of the lateral wall of the nasal cavity. Its upper part is crossed obliquely forward and downward by the shallow lacrimal groove (Sulcus lacrimalis), which contains the naso-lacrimal duct; in the adult the posterior part of the groove is converted into a canal, which is continuous with that on the inner surface of the lacrimal bone. Below the groove is the inferior turbinal crest (Crista conchalis inferior), to which the inferior turbinal bone is attached. Lower down and parallel with the turbinal crest is the palatine process, which projects inward like a shelf. Behind this the surface is rough for articulation with the palate bone; this area is crossed by a groove which concurs with a furrow on the palate bone in the formation of the palatine canal. The posterior part of the bone is excavated to form part of the maxillary sinus.

The superior border is irregular and scaly. Its anterior part is grooved and its posterior part beveled for articulation with the nasal process of the premaxilla and the nasal and lacrimal bones.

The inferior or alveolar border (Processus alveolaris) is thick, and presents six large cavities, the alveoli, for the cheek teeth. The alveoli are separated by transverse interalveolar septa. There is often a small alveolus for the first premolar (“wolf tooth”) close to the first large one. Further forward the border is narrow and forms part of the interdental or interalveolar space (Margo interalveolaris). Behind the last alveolus is a rough area, the alveolar tuberosity.

The anterior extremity is pointed. It joins the premaxilla, and forms with it the alveolus for the canine tooth.

The posterior extremity forms a rounded prominence, the maxillary tuberosity (Tuber maxillare). Internal to the tuberosity is a deep cavity, the maxillary hiatus, in which are three foramina. The upper one, the maxillary foramen, leads into the infraorbital canal. The lower one, the posterior palatine foramen, is the entrance to the palatine canal. The sphenopalatine foramen perforates the inner wall of the hiatus and opens into the nasal cavity.

The zygomatic or temporal process (Processus temporalis) projects backward above and external to the tuberosity; it is overlapped by the corresponding part of the malar and also articulates with the zygomatic process of the temporal. A small curved plate extends inward from it and joins the frontal and palate bones, forming part of the floor of the orbit.

The palatine process (Processus palatinus) is a plate which projects horizontally inward from the lower part of the inner surface of the body. It forms the greater part of the basis of the hard palate. Its superior or nasal surface is smooth and concave transversely; on its anterior part, close to the inner border, is a shallow groove in which the organ of Jacobson is situated. The inferior or palatine surface is slightly concave from side to side, and presents along its outer part the palatine groove (Sulcus palatinus). The groove is a continuation of the palatine canal, and contains the palatine artery and nerve. The internal border unites with its fellow to form the median palatine suture; its nasal aspect bears the nasal crest, which forms, with that of the opposite process, a groove for the vomer. The posterior border unites with the horizontal part of the palate bone at the transverse palatine suture.