Agricultural zoology

Regarding the means of destroying those mice which are sometimes damaging to agriculture (M. sylvaticus and M. minutus), see methods mentioned under “Field-vole” (p. 43).

Family: Arvicolidæ (Vole Family).

The large voles are also popularly called “rats,” the smaller ones “mice.” They closely resemble the true mice and rats (p. 38), but are distinguished from them by their plumper, more compressed body; a thicker head with blunt snout, and ears quite hidden in the fur; and a short, tolerably hairy tail, on which no rings of scales can be distinguished. There are on each side of each jaw three back teeth, of which each appears to consist of two rows of three-sided prisms, fused together along the middle line (cp. Figs. 24 and 23). The native species all belong to the genus Arvicola; the Bank Vole (Arvicola glareolus), the Water Rat, or Water Vole (A. amphibius), and the Short-tailed Field Mouse, or Field Vole (A. agrestis).

The brownish-red Bank Vole (A. glareolus) occurs in forests.

The Water Rat, or Water Vole (A. amphibius). Body six inches long, tail half the length of the body. Fur of one colour, brighter on the under side, varying from brownish grey to brownish black on the back, and from whitish to greyish black on the belly. On the banks of rivers, brooks, ditches, canals, etc.; also on damp low-lying meadows and fields. Digs much-branched passages in the soil; this often takes place in embankments to such an extent that it finally leads to their complete destruction. The vole also does damage in grass-fields and cornfields in the same way as the mole (p. 33). In its case, however, there is no compensating service. It certainly eats insects and worms, but its chief food is of vegetable nature; grain, potatoes, turnips, and carrots are devoured by it in large quantity, and in particular stored up in its hiding-place. It also destroys the roots of grass and corn, and eagerly devours chickens and the eggs of ducks and geese. A variety (A. amphibius, var. terrestris) occurs in dry soils, and is distinguished by its smaller size, lighter colour, and shorter tail. Its habits are the same as those of the ordinary form, but it is more given to attacking trees.

Traps, shooting, poisoning with celery stumps hollowed out and filled with phosphorus, or else with phosphorus paste.

The Field Vole, or Short-tailed Field Mouse (A. agrestis). A small animal, with dark brownish grey back and greyish white belly. [Lives in pastures, especially those which are low-lying and damp. Large numbers are found together, and they make deep burrows in the soil, each pair having a special nest to themselves. Three, four, or even more litters per year; four to ten young in each litter. Its favourite food consists of roots, young shoots of grass, etc., and the tender bark of shrubs, but nothing of vegetable nature comes amiss. Specially destructive in permanent pasture.]

Remedies. (a) Preventive measures. Protection of its natural enemies (weasel, stoat, polecat, fox, hedgehog, owls, buzzards, kestrels, the smaller seagulls). Catching in traps, etc., in the spring, when the voles are only present in small numbers.

(b) Destructive measures, which should be as generally used as possible in infested districts. If a field has been completely devastated, or the crop is over: (1) Working the soil with a spiked roller; (2) Partial inundation of the lower-lying fields. If it is desired to kill the voles and spare the crop as well, the following means may be recommended: (1) The digging of cylindrical holes six inches across and two feet deep, especially at the margins of the fields and in the furrows, as well as—at harvest time—on any footpaths that may be found. The voles fall into these holes, cannot get out again, and are starved. (2) The employment of poisons. (Care must be taken that no children or domestic animals are poisoned.) Phosphorus paste is best.

The Southern Field Vole (A. arvalis) plays the same destructive part on the Continent that the preceding form does here (Fig. 25). Remedies—see above.

The feet end in two hoof-covered toes, besides which two “after toes” are present. The upper incisors are absent, with few exceptions, but many deer have canines in the upper jaw. The back teeth of Ruminants are compound teeth. The lower jaw is smaller than the upper, and during chewing undergoes lateral movements, so that the plants taken in as food are ground up, as it were, into small pieces, between the projecting enamel ridges of the upper and lower back teeth. The stomach consists of four subdivisions; these are (1) the rumen, or paunch, where the greater part of the food and water taken collects; (2) the reticulum, or honey-comb stomach; (3) the psalterium, or manyplies; (4) the abomasum, reed, or rennet stomach. The last is the second largest part, and in it the same chemical changes take place as in the simple stomach of a non-ruminant. After the food has remained for some time in the paunch it passes up again through the gullet, and [as the “cud”] undergoes a second chewing. The soft mass resulting is once more swallowed, and passes into the psalterium and abomasum.

Not only the families of Tylopoda (Camels, Llamas), and Camelopardalidæ (Giraffes), but also the large family of Cavicornia, to which, amongst others, the ox, sheep, and goat belong, will be passed over in this book. I need only mention the—

Family: Cervidæ (Deer Family).

Deer have branched horns, known as antlers. With the solitary exception of the reindeer, they are only found in the males. They are bony structures borne upon projecting knobs (horn cores) of the frontal lines. After each rutting-season the antlers are cast, new ones, clothed at first with a soft skin [the “velvet”], are developed. Before the next rutting-season the dermal part of the skin unites firmly with the underlying antler, and becomes itself ossified, while the epidermis shrivels up, partly peels off in bits, and is partly rubbed off by the animal against tree trunks. If the conditions of life (food, weather) are favourable, the animal acquires a new side branch to each antler every year, at any rate, so long as he continues to get bigger and stronger. The one-year-old male (“brocket”) has therefore a simple unbranched antler, the two-year-old (“spayad”) one side branch as well, the three-year-old (“sorel”) three points in all; the four-year-old (“staggard”) has four points; the five-year-old (“stag”) five, and so on.

In Britain two indigenous deer are found—the Red Deer (Cervus elaphus) and the Roebuck (C. capreolus); a third species, the Fallow Deer (C. dama), lives in South Europe and Asia Minor [and the exact date of its introduction into Britain is not known].

The Red Deer (Cervus elaphus). Six to seven feet long, and four feet high. Antlers rough and cylindrical for their entire length; each in its normal condition has two front branches [“brow” and “bez-tyne”], a middle branch [“tres”], and a “crown.” Tail small. Body of a brownish colour, becoming red in summer. A light yellowish brown spot on the tail. Male larger than the female, with long dark hairs on the neck during the breeding season (autumn). The young (“calves”) are spotted with white till their first change of coat in October. The hind brings forth one or rarely two calves in May or the beginning of June. The stag sheds his antlers at the end of February; the new ones are already full-grown in July. So long as they are growing the stag keeps to the low woods, and first seeks the high-lying forests when they are completed. He only leaves the forest for any length of time during the breeding season, but, wherever possible, comes to the field for a short time every evening to feed on cabbages, peas, beans, young corn, clover, lupines, grass, etc. Turnips, carrots, and potatoes, dug out of the ground by the fore legs, are also devoured. In this way red deer do a great deal of damage, not only directly in feeding, but also, to a larger extent, by trampling down the crops. In autumn and winter they chiefly feed on acorns, beechnuts, buds and young shoots of various trees. They also peel the bark from young trees, and often cause damage while rubbing the remains of the velvet from their antlers. Red deer are injurious to agriculture and forestry. Suitable fencing of fields, gardens, etc., to be protected.

The Roebuck (Cervus capreolus) measures up to three and a half feet long, and about two feet high. Antlers (Fig. 27) only slightly branched, and rough all over; beams and branches cylindrical. No brow-tynes, and usually only three branches. Tail extremely small and inconspicuous. Legs long and slender. Summer coat greyish brown, passing over to a reddish tint; the longer winter coat brownish grey. A whitish patch on the rump. The young (“fawns”) have at first white spots on a brownish ground.

Breeding season in August. The female (“doe”) brings forth her two fawns in May or June. The roebuck keeps principally to the lower and middle forests, especially in places where glades, rich in grass and herbage, and cornfields or meadows alternate with woodland. In the evening it comes out of the cover to eat in the fields and meadows; towards morning it withdraws again. The roebuck devours both young corn and corn in the ear; also ears of millet, beans, peas, clover, and lupines. It does not appear to touch potatoes and turnips. The bucks in particular do much mischief by trampling about in cornfields.

The Fallow Deer (Cervus dama) is about four feet long and three feet high; antlers rough and cylindrical only towards the root, with tolerably smooth, flat, shovel-like ends. Old individuals are pale brown, the summer coat is reddish and brightly spotted; belly whitish; a white patch on the tail. The young have sharply marked bright spots. In its habits this non-indigenous species agrees in many respects with the red deer, but changes its abode less. Towards evening it eagerly leaves the forest in order to seek its food in the cornfields. As the fallow deer lives in large herds its trampling does much damage.

Non-ruminating hoofed animals with thick, often callous, naked, or scantily haired, frequently bristly skin and with three to five toes, which, though they are not all developed to the same extent, are yet never rudimentary. The various species are very unlike one another as to food and dentition. Here belong domesticated swine, and a single species—formerly occurring wild in Britain—

The Wild Boar (Sus scrofa). On each foot four toes, of which the two hinder are small and do not usually touch the ground. The wild boar agrees in the general conformation of its body with the common domesticated swine. Six incisors in upper and lower jaw; the lower ones forwardly directed. The canines, which are more developed in boars than sows, curve outwards and upwards in both jaws as “tusks.” On each side of each jaw seven tuberculated back teeth completely covered with enamel. Length of the body 5 feet 10 inches; length of tail 1 foot 8 inches. Colour: black and rusty brown. The young ones are white, spotted and striped with dark brown. The wild boar likes damp, swampy, but at the same time thickly overgrown districts, where it remains hidden in the day, only seeking the fields and meadows when it has become dark and quite still. It then chiefly feeds on turnips, carrots, and potatoes, rooting them out of the ground; it also devours leguminous crops and grain, but treads down far more of these plants than it eats. Besides this, it also feeds on acorns, beechnuts, hazel-nuts, and truffles. The wild boar does some service by devouring snails, worms, insect larvæ living in the soil, and also the pupæ of destructive species of caterpillars, which occur in the same situation; also voles. Thick hedges, in order to protect the corn from injury.

Order: Solidungula (Single-hoofed Mammals),

to which the horse and the ass belong, need not be dealt with here; still less the other orders enumerated on p. 23.

Warm-blooded Vertebrates, which breathe by lungs, are covered with feathers, have no teeth but a horny beak, and lay hard-shelled eggs, which are hatched by the warmth of their body. They are adapted for movement in the air, though not all to the same degree. The fore limbs are modified into wings, in which, however, the parts found in Mammals can be recognized. We distinguish in the first place a small thumb, and then in most cases a two-jointed forefinger and a small second finger. Secondary quills (Fig. 28, BB) are attached to the ulna, and primary quills (A, 1–10) to the two metacarpals and the finger joints, while the thumb bears the bastard wing (C). The tail feathers, or rectrices, are attached to the last joint of the tail. The body is clothed with stiff, tolerably long contour feathers, which conceal the soft short down from view. The bones are hollow and filled with air. Their cavities are connected with air-sacs, which are found in all parts of the body, and fill themselves with air from the lungs when the bird begins to fly. In this way its specific gravity is reduced. The body firm, especially the hinder part of it, which is almost immovable; the neck, which may consist of many vertebræ (even as many as twenty-two), can, on the contrary, be turned in many directions. Birds walk entirely on their toes; the metatarsals are fused with one of the rows of tarsals into a “tarsus” bone. Tarsus and toes are covered with horny scales.

A bird’s egg (Fig. 29) consists of a germinal disc (h) from which the young bird develops, and which rests on the yolk, made up of substances serving for the nutriment of the developing bird: the yellow (a) and the white (b) yolk, as well as the albumen (c, c¹, “white of egg”) in which lie two twisted cords (chalazæ),—finally of protective structures: the shell-membrane (e) and the calcareous shell (f); g is the air-chamber.

When the young escape from the egg, they are either able to at once look after themselves more or less, at least to look for their food,—in which case they can see and are clothed with feathers at hatching (precocious young; e.g. fowls, ducks, gulls, and pewits),—or the young remain some time in the nest, as they are, to begin with, both blind and naked, and in this case they are fed for some time by the parents (nestlings; e.g. birds of prey, sparrows, nightingales, pigeons). In the frigid and temperate zones most species of birds do not remain in their native country after the breeding season; those which go south in the autumn are termed migrants; while birds which do not migrate, but remain in the district where they have bred, are known as residents (sparrow, jay, magpie). Gipsy migrants execute more or less extensive wanderings, influenced by want of food or other causes (woodpecker, titmouse, golden-crested wren, tree-creeper). The travels of such birds are not, like those of migrants, undertaken at a definite time of year, or in definite directions (N., S.), but many of their species collect together in large flocks for the purpose of wandering, like migrants.

The following orders are usually distinguished:

I. Raptores (Birds of Prey), II. Scansores (Climbers), III. Passeres (Singing Birds), IV. Gyrantes (Doves), V. Rasores (Scratchers), VI. Grallatores (Waders), VII. Natatores (Swimmers), VIII. Cursores (Running Birds).

The Order Cursores includes the ostrich-like birds, and will not here receive further notice.

Upper beak hooked, covered with a skin (cere) at its base; four toes possessing strong claws, and provided with pads in their under side (Fig. 31); wings powerful. Birds of prey live in pairs, and breed once a year in nests composed of pieces of wood and branches. The young are nestlings (p. 51). Sight keen. These birds feed almost exclusively on vertebrates, principally mammals and birds. An idea of their food can be gained by examination of their “pellets”—roundish balls composed of the indigestible parts of their food, and disgorged from twelve to twenty hours after feeding. Two groups are distinguished—diurnal and nocturnal birds of prey. The first (Figs. 31, 32) have a laterally flattened head, eyes directed laterally, and tolerably stiff feathers. The nocturnal forms (“owls,” Figs. 30, 33) have a large head, flattened in front, with large eyes facing to the front, soft plumage, and hair-like feathers on the toes, of which two are directed forwards, one backwards, and one outwards. The radiating feathers round the eye constitute a “veil.”

Predominatingly harmful (from killing domestic mammals) are the following species occurring in Britain: the Sea Eagle (Haliaëtus albicilla), the Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaëtus), the Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus), the Merlin (F. œsalon), the Hobby (F. subbuteo), the Sparrow Hawk (Accipiter nisus), the Kite (Milvus regalis), the Goshawk (Astur palumbarius), the Harriers (Circus cyaneus and C. cinerarius), and the Honey Buzzard (Pernis apivorus). The last effects damage by catching honey bees.

Useful in the main, being destroyers of field-voles, are the following: the Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus), the Buzzard (Buteo vulgaris), the Barn Owl (Strix flammea, Fig. 33), the Brown Owl (S. aluco), the Little Owl (Athene noctua), a casual, the Short-eared or Woodcock Owl (Otus brachyotus), the Long-eared Owl (O. vulgaris), and the Eagle Owl (Otus maximus, Fig. 30), a rare visitor.

A bird of prey cannot simply be classed as harmful or useful; a species mainly injurious may sometimes destroy a field vole or a destructive bird, while a useful species may sometimes attack domestic poultry. Game-preserving is destructive of almost all the indigenous diurnal birds of prey, and of the owls to a less extent.

Order: Scansores (Climbers).

Birds with two toes directed forwards and two backwards. The young are nestlings. Here belong toucans, parrots, cuckoos, and woodpeckers. The first two groups are limited to the tropics; woodpeckers are only of importance in the culture of fruit trees and in forestry. I describe briefly—

The Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus, Fig. 34). Fourteen inches long, tail eight inches. The yellowish beak is slightly curved; feet yellow. Back blue-grey in old birds, brownish in young ones. Belly white with dark transverse lines. Ten tail quills, flecked with white. Shy; flies like a bird of prey. The female lays her eggs at intervals of about fourteen days, and cannot therefore hatch them out herself. She lays the egg on the ground, and then takes it in her bill to the nest of a small bird which feed its young with insects (wagtail, grasshopper warbler, nightingale, robin, lesser whitethroat, wren, lark). The cuckoo’s egg is generally hatched by the foster parent, and the true young often do not come out from the egg, owing to lack of warmth; or, if hatched, they are thrown out later on by the much larger, rapidly developing young cuckoo. Every cuckoo, therefore, is so far harmful that it costs the lives of several insect-eating birds. But it far more than compensates for this by destroying insects. It is especially beneficial to fruit-tree culture and forestry, since it eats an enormous number of caterpillars; but in late summer it comes frequently from the woodland into the fields, and then eats the caterpillars of the cabbage white, cabbage moth, and silver Y moth, surface caterpillars, and the larvæ of the turnip saw-fly. It also devours mole-crickets and (naturally in the spring) cockchafers.

This order is essentially constituted by all those birds with helpless young (p. 51), which do not belong to the two preceding orders or the one next following. Beak without a cere. Three toes forwardly, one backwardly directed.

Group: Hirundinidæ (Swallows).

With short flat beak, broad at the base, with gape extending far back, and triangular as seen from above. In flight the beak is opened as widely as possible, serving for catching insects. Wings long and pointed. Feet short and weak, entirely unsuited or only poorly adapted for walking; their chief use is to enable the swallow to hold fast to different objects. Swallows fly quickly and catch insects while on the wing. The insects on which they prey are generally unimportant to agriculture and forestry; but they may also do good by catching crane flies (Tipula), and ribbon-footed corn flies (Chlorops), which often fly about our fields in enormous swarms in order to lay their eggs. All swallows are migratory birds. There belong here—

1. True Swallows (Hirundo), with forked tails; three toes directed to the front, one to the back. Here may be reckoned—Swallow (H. rustica), always broods in sheltered spots, e.g. inside a stable, summer-house, or verandah; House Martin (H. urbica), nests against buildings, under the eaves for example; the Sand Martin (H. riparia), breeds in the neighbourhood of streams, especially in vertical banks of loamy or coherent sandy soil, where it makes its nest at the end of a passage a yard long. The House Martin is shining black on the back, white on the entire under surface and rump. The Bank Martin is brownish grey on the back, white on the under side, with brownish-grey bands on the breast.

2. Swifts (Cypselus), with forked tails and four strong, curved, forwardly directed claws. Only one British species belongs here—the Swift (Cypselus apus), ten inches long, brownish black except for white throat, and with very long curved wings.

3. Night-jars (Caprimulgus), with tail not forked, soft plumage, large head and eyes; fly at night. One species belongs here—the Goatsucker (Caprimulgus europæus, Fig. 35), twelve inches long, grey on the upper side, spotted with blackish brown and rusty yellow, yellowish whitey grey with dark wavy lines on the under side. In the day it flies awkwardly and heavily, and usually keeps under cover; by night it flies rapidly and boldly, especially in bare spots in woods, or in gardens and on fields. It haunts especially the neighbourhood of sheepfolds and cattle in the meadows, since it always finds flies and gnats there. It also catches cockchafers and various moths.

Group: Magnirostres (Large-beaked Perching Birds).

Beak strong, thick, often incurved near its apex. These birds eat almost all kinds of food, both animal and vegetable. Here belong Starlings and Raven-like Birds (crows, magpies, jays).

The Starling (Sturnus vulgaris).

Plumage black, with a violet sheen. The tips of the contour feathers, however, are white or bright yellowish. These white patches become so well marked after the autumn moult, that they almost completely cover the shining metallic black of the feathers. They gradually become smaller; in the next spring they are almost or entirely lost. Very serviceable. Devours, especially in autumn, many field snails, also cockchafer grubs, wireworms, grass caterpillars, grasshoppers, leaf-lice; also many insects destructive to fruit trees and forest trees. The starling, however, is able to do considerable damage to garden fruit trees, since it eats cherries, currants, and sometimes even pears. Starlings often settle on the backs of sheep and cows in order to pick off the vermin.

Genus: Corvus (Crow-like Birds).

Here belong—1. The Jackdaw (C. monedula), with relatively short beak and long tarsi. Black; side of the head and neck ashen grey. Breeds in holes in trees, chimneys, ruins, and towers. 2. The Hooded Crow (G. cornix); bright grey, except the head, throat, wings, and tail, which are black. Breeds in all parts of Europe east of the Elbe; occurs in Western Europe as a gipsy migrant in winter. 3. Carrion Crow (C. corone); black, beak stout and strongly bent at its end. Breeds in trees, but never (like the Rook) in large numbers together. 4. Rook (C. frugilegus); black, beak rather long; in adult specimens the head feathers are quite worn away at the base of the beak. 5. Raven (C. corax); much larger than the other species; black, beak very strong, strongly curved along its entire upper side. Nowhere in large numbers.

Food, Benefit conferred, and Damage done. Ravens, and sometimes even rooks, attack lambs and sick sheep, also ducks, geese, fowls, and pigeons. Carrion crows and hooded crows rarely attack our domestic animals. All crows, however, steal the eggs of our poultry. They also injure sport, since they kill hares and rabbits, young fawns, quails, pheasants, etc. They do a little good, however, by devouring field-voles, but, as a rule, only catch the sick ones which are not able to move quickly. They do harm by destroying useful insect-eating birds, also eating their eggs and young. But as insect-eaters, they are extremely useful; they devour cockchafers, wireworms, butterflies, surface caterpillars, crane flies and their larvæ, and field snails; also many earthworms. As to the vegetable part of their food, they devour, in the first place, germinating seeds; grain, peas, beans. They also pick grain from the ear, both when ripe and, to a larger extent, when still soft; and in doing this pull down the ear so as to crack the stalk, thus causing more damage than by the mere eating. They also plunder the ripening peas, and feast upon cherries, plums, apricots, and other juicy fruits; even potatoes and turnips. All crow-like birds do some harm and some good, only the raven (which eats scarcely any insects) is to be always reckoned as an enemy.

The Magpie (Pica caudata) and Jay (Garrulus glandarius) are resident birds closely related to the crows. The first affects open tracts of land (fields, meadows, gardens) in the neighbourhood of large trees; the latter is a woodland bird. Both birds eat almost everything: grain, acorns, beechnuts, cherries, berries; cockchafers, wireworms, and similar insects; the eggs and young of useful insect-eating song-birds (such as titmice), also these little birds themselves, ducklings and chickens, young partridges, quails, pheasants, now and then field-voles. More harmful than useful.

Group: Conirostres (Conical-beaked Perching Birds).

Beak conical, thicker and shorter than in the species of the following group. They devour insects and seeds, a few species seeds exclusively. Here belong first the Titmice (Parus), gipsy migrants which are extremely serviceable both in fruit-tree culture and forestry. Then the Larks (especially the Skylark, Alauda arvensis, a resident), which nest on the ground, eating insects, seeds, and in winter even leaves; they feed their young, however, with insects. They do both good and harm, but the former mostly preponderates. In late summer and autumn, skylarks collect in flocks, and wander here and there for a long time: before this, they travel south; at this time many are caught and eaten. The male skylark sings beautifully, rising meanwhile high in the air. The Buntings (Emberiza) have a characteristic compressed and pointed beak; they seek their food on the ground in fields and meadows, and on roads. The food consists of grain and insects; but since these birds never take grains from the ear, they only do damage by picking them up at seed-time. They feed their young with insects. The damage is usually very inconsiderable, but, on the other hand, the benefit conferred is slight. (Yellow Hammer, E. citrinella, a yellow-coloured resident. The Common Bunting, E. miliaria, a grey-coloured migrant, etc.) In the family of Finches a number of species are included which are of small agricultural importance: e.g. the Bullfinch (Pyrrhula vulgaris), specially attacks fruit-tree buds in March; the Goldfinch (Carduelis elegans); the Siskin (Chrysomitris spinus); the Lesser Redpoll (Linota linaria); the Greenfinch (Ligurinus chloris). A few species, however, must be dealt with more fully, and, first,—

The two Sparrows,

i.e. the House Sparrow (Passer domestica) and the Tree Sparrow (P. montana).

House Sparrow: ear region bright grey. A rust-coloured or yellowish streak behind the eye. The whole throat black in the male. Wings with a yellowish white transverse band. Tree Sparrow: ear region black. A black streak behind the eye, a white band round the neck, and a black patch on the throat. Wings with two white transverse bands. The two sparrows are very much alike in their habits, but the house sparrow frequents more the neighbourhood of human dwellings, even in large towns. Both sparrows are mainly harmful; where seeds (especially those containing starch, e.g. corn) are available, they prefer this kind of food to any other; and, besides this, they chiefly bring up their young on soft unripe grain. Sparrows devour the germinating corn after seed-time, and also pick the grain from the ear, in which process they at the same time do damage by breaking down the haulms so that the grain falls out. They pick the young peas from their pods; devour, too, several juicy tree fruits, e.g. cherries and grapes; and destroy young garden seedlings, e.g. lettuce, spinach, garden flowers. The house sparrow eats more insects than the tree sparrow (among them—geometer caterpillars, injurious roller caterpillars), but leaves the most noxious kinds untouched. Both sparrows are residents, but in autumn and winter often collect together in large flocks.

The Linnet (Linota cannabina),

with grey-brown darkly spotted back. Belly whitish, tail black with broad white margins. During summer the top of the head and the breast of the male are of a beautiful red. They are often found together in flocks during September. In spring and summer they chiefly live on oil-containing seeds, and may even do some good by eating the seeds of charlock; usually, however, doing much more harm by devouring the seed of rape, flax, linseed, and hemp.

The Chaffinch (Fringilla cœlebs).

A white patch on the two outermost tail feathers and the ones next them. Wings with one white and one yellowish transverse band. Male: upper side of head and neck bluish grey, back brown, breast reddish brown. Female: back grey-brown, belly whitish, breast ash-grey. The chaffinch inhabits forests, both those of ordinary foliage trees and those consisting of conifers; it also nests in gardens and plantations. At the beginning of September the males separate from the females, and both sexes collect in large flocks which haunt gardens, avenues, and bushes. In mild winters they remain resident, but travel away if the cold is greater. The chaffinch devours oil-containing seeds by preference, but also eats starchy ones, and seeks its food on the ground. It does a great deal of damage in cornfields by picking the seeds out of the soil after they have been sown; but does not take the grain from the ear. It also eats young seedlings. But valuable services more than counterbalance the harm done. When the chaffinches in autumn fly about in large flocks in the fields, they eat an enormous number of weed seeds. The young are chiefly fed with insects, especially with caterpillars. In the spring, when the seeds have germinated and the young corn is not yet ripe, the chaffinch feeds itself also on insects.

Group: Subulirostres (Awl-beaked Perching Birds).

Beak slender, awl-shaped, round in transverse section. A fully developed organ of voice. Feed almost exclusively on insects; there are only a few species which occasionally eat seeds. A few of them, however, sometimes devour juicy fruits (cherries, bird-cherries, elder-berries, juniper-berries, grapes). The birds belonging to this group, without exception, feed their young on insects. They are of service; even those species which occasionally do damage are useful on the whole.

There belong to the Subulirostres—

The Wagtails (Motacilla), e.g. the White Wagtail (M. alba), usually living in the neighbourhood of water, and seeking its insect food in the fields (often behind the plough), and in pastures and gardens.

The lark-coloured Pipits (Anthus).

The Hedge Accentor, or “Sparrow” (Accentor modularis),—in garden hedges, and woods, feeding sometimes on seeds.

The following “warblers:” Nightingale (Daulias luscinia), Robin (Erithacus rubecula), Redstart (Ruticilla phœnicurus), the Lesser Whitethroat (Sylvia curruca), Garden Warbler (S. hortensis), Willow Wren (S. trochilus), Chiffchaff (S. rufa), Reed Warblers (Acrocephalus streperus and A. arundinacea), etc. The last-named live among reeds and rushes on the banks of fresh waters, and eat insects which do not affect agriculture and forestry; all the other warblers are useful.

Other examples of the Subulirostres are the Golden-crested Wren (Regulus cristatus), and the Common Wren (Troglodytes parvulus), which are of service to forestry and fruit-tree culture, but not to agriculture.

Most of the native thrush-like birds (Turdus), e.g. the Blackbird (T. merula), the Missel Thrush (T. viscivorus), the Fieldfare (T. pilaris), the Redwing (T. iliacus), and the Song Thrush (T. musicus), assist the farmer by devouring noxious insects and snails; but several of them occasionally do damage by poaching on cherries, grapes, currants, etc. Some of them (e.g. the Song Thrush and Blackbird) breed in almost all parts of Britain, others come here only in autumn or winter.

Order: Gyrantes (Doves).

Body strongly built, somewhat thick-set. Wings long and pointed. Beak weak, with a cere at its base; nostrils covered by gristly scales. Toes: three forwardly and one backwardly directed, free, i.e. without a web (as in poultry). The young are at first blind and naked. They are at first fed with a cheesy secretion of the glands of the crop; later, with grain softened in the crop. Doves always live in pairs. Nests careless, flat, of loosely arranged twigs; situated on tree-branches, rocks, and large buildings. Doves breed twice or thrice a year, laying two longish, shining white eggs.

Native British forms:—

1. Wood Pigeon (Columba palumbus, Fig. 39), from April to September scattered about in the woods, but after the breeding season wander about in flocks, and in winter travel further south, although many remain. It nests on horizontal branches, and feeds on seeds of fir and pine, acorns, beechnuts, also grain, peas, vetches, rape-seed,—but seeds of many weeds as well (e.g. those of charlock, vetchling, spurry, cleavers). When the earth is covered with snow it often eats cabbage and the leaves of winter rape, but is also of some service.

2. The Turtle Dove (C. turtur) occurs on the edges of woods, especially those consisting of coniferous trees. Nests in the trees. For food, use, and harm, cp. the preceding species. Steals buckwheat grains from the fields.

3. The Rock Pigeon (C. livia) is the original stock of our races of domestic pigeons. It nests, as a resident, in the Mediterranean countries; as a migrant, on the rocky parts of the coasts of Great Britain and the Orkneys, Shetlands, and Faroe Islands.

Order: Rasores (Poultry).

Body strong, thick-set. Head small, often with naked, brightly coloured patches, with fleshy combs or with a crest of feathers. Tip of the upper beak bends over that of the lower one. No cere (cp. Doves). Wings short, rounded; flight heavy. Feet strong. Hinder toe small and usually attached to the tarsus higher up than the front toes. Claws blunt. A small web at the bases of the toes. The male of several species bears a spur on the tarsus. Birds of this order usually keep on the ground, scraping it in search of their food, which consists of seeds, berries, the green parts of plants, insects, worms, and snails. Young precocious (p. 51). Several domestic birds belong to the Rasores: pheasants, the various races of fowls, pea-fowls, guinea-fowls, turkeys.

The species living wild in Britain are game-birds. They are—the Capercailzie (Tetrao urogallus, Fig. 40), Black Game (T. tetrix), Partridge (Perdix cinerea), Quail (P. coturnix); none of them are particularly harmful or useful to agriculture.

The Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus, Fig. 41) was originally a native of the Caucasus, and shores of the Caspian Sea and Sea of Aral; it occurs wild in Central Europe. Pheasants are troublesome to the farmer, both by devouring the newly sown seed and by scratching up the fields.