Aircraft in war

France has indeed been the breeding-place for types of aëroplanes. From France have the nations of late been largely gathering them—save Germany. She has preferred to evolve her own distinctive types. Even before Wilbur Wright appeared with his machine at Le Mans and the details were known, hearsay of his doings had fired the French imagination to do what he had done. In ignorance of the vital principle of movable surfaces that the Wrights had evolved, there came into existence the unbending, rigid type that was not destined to survive.

The first of these was the bird of prey of M. Santos Dumont. Rudely simple was it in its construction. Two box kites formed the supporting surface. In the centre was the motor, with the screw behind. To attain flight the machine was run upon wheels along the ground until a certain speed was reached, when the machine rose into the air. With this the inventor did not do much more than make aërial jumps; but rude as it was it contained one feature which has since been retained in all aëroplanes. In this one respect it was an advance—and a very necessary one—upon the Wright machine. That feature was the attachment of wheels to the machine that has been mentioned above. This was, indeed, an important step in the evolution of the aërial scout. Had it been necessary to continue using the external starting catapults that were a feature of the early experiments of the Wrights, the application of the aëroplane to warfare would have been somewhat limited.

The well-known Voisin machine was another outcome of this period, but, imperfect as it was, it brought Mr. Henry Farman into fame, for on it he was the first man in Europe to fly any distance worthy of mention.

The Farman Biplane.

Discontented with the Voisin machine, Mr. Henry Farman constructed one of his own design. Though it appeared at an early stage of aëroplane development, it still remains one of the most efficient types of biplanes. It has been used enormously in France, and armoured Farmans play an important part in the great war that is proceeding.

Mr. Farman quickly realised that for maintaining lateral stability the vertical planes fitted between the main planes of the Voisin type were a very poor substitute for the wing-warping method of the brothers Wright. He, however, produced the movement of the main surfaces in an original manner. He hinged small flaps to the rear extremities of the main planes. These he called “ailerons.” They produce much the same effect as the wing-warping method of the brothers Wright. When the biplane tilted sideways, the flaps were drawn down on the side that was depressed. The pressure of the air on the flaps forced the aëroplane back on an even keel. In the normal condition the flaps flew out straight in the wind on a level with the main planes. Another noticeable feature of Mr. Farman’s machine was the production of the first light and efficient landing chassis. This was a combination of wooden skids and bicycle wheels. Below the biplane, on wooden uprights, he fitted two long wooden skids. On either side of each skid he placed two little pneumatic tyred bicycle wheels, connected by a short axle. These were held in position on the skid by stout rubber bands passing over the axle.

In a general way the wheels raised the skids from the ground, but if the ascent was abrupt the wheels were forced against the rubber bands and the skids came in contact with the ground. With the abatement of the force of the shock the wheels came again into play.

Simplification of the chassis is becoming evident in the latest forms of all military aëroplanes, the reduction of weight in this portion of the apparatus being important.

To Mr. Farman belongs the credit of having first applied to his aëroplane the now famous Gnome motor, in which seven or more cylinders revolve. It can truly be said that the influence of this motor on facilitating flight generally, and very particularly military aviation, has been nothing short of prodigious. The aëroplane, like the airship, had to wait for the light petroleum motor. Its advent made flight possible, but achievement in flight would have been comparatively small had it not been for the welcome appearance of a motor specially adapted to the purpose.

The early forms of aëroplane engines in which the cylinders were fixed had proved to be quite unreliable owing to the high speeds at which the engines had to work. Overheating, loss of power, and stopping were frequent occurrences. The water-cooling and air-cooling systems introduced were equally inefficient. The very fact that the cylinders of the Gnome motor revolved effected the desideratum of automatic cooling, and also gave a smooth, even thrust to the propeller.

If the aëroplanes in the present war were flying over the enemy’s lines with old-fashioned engines, they would be dropping down into hostile hands as quickly as dying flies from the ceiling on the first winter days.

After the introduction of the Gnome motor, it was quickly realised that the speeds secured by its use gave the aëroplane a stability that was absent in the more slowly moving machines. Winds that were the bugbear of the aëroplanists could then be combated, and the aëroplane ceased to be the fine-weather machine. Heights could then be climbed that a little while before were undreamt of. It is said that there are some disadvantages in the case of revolving cylinders—that they have been known to produce a gyroscopic effect that has upset the machine. This, however, is a somewhat doubtful point. It may be urged that the greater silence of motors with fixed cylinders is an advantage in war. This may sometimes be so, and it is quite possible that for offensive aëroplanes a special type of motor may be in the future evolved.

To return to the other features of the Farman machine. The plan he adopted in his racing machines of making the upper plane larger than the lower one was a valuable step in speed-producing machines.

The records won by Mr. Farman with his machines alone testify to its efficiency. Often he has held the world’s records of distance, duration, and height, wrestling, indeed, for these with the Blériot monoplane.

In 1911 Mr. Farman began to make types of biplanes specially designed for military use, and in which he studied how he could best give the observing officer an unobstructed view of the ground beneath him. He placed both pilot and observer in seats projecting in front of the main planes. He also made a new departure in placing his upper plane in advance of the lower one. He claimed that this facilitates climbing and descent. He has, however, quite lately evolved a newer type of scouting machine.

In this the lower plane is only one-third the span of the upper one. The nacelle is not mounted on the lower plane, as in the ordinary types of his machine, but, instead, strung from the main spars of the top one. The usual chassis is absent. There is a single running wheel mounted at each end of the lower plane, which is brought very close to the ground. The upper and lower planes are separated by four pairs of struts. The tail is similar to that used on the ordinary type.

The following are the dimensions of one of the latest 1914 types of one-seated Farman machines:—

The following are the details of one of his high-power hydroplanes (1914):—

The Blériot Monoplane.

At the same time that Mr. Henry Farman was making his first flights on his biplanes, M. Blériot was experimenting with monoplanes. His first attempts were disastrous. Time after time he was dashed to the ground. But he persevered, and produced a machine which by its performance staggered the aëronautical world.

When he was first experimenting most people thought that it was in superposed surfaces that success alone lay. They forgot the researches of Langley. These had showed that support depended on two factors—speed and surface; that when speed is increased a less supporting surface will suffice. The success of Blériot took the world by surprise. If I were asked to name the men who have done most to further practical aëronautical development, I should unhesitatingly say: 1, the brothers Wright; 2, Blériot; 3, Pégoud.

The first have been already dealt with. I will speak of the two latter together.

Of the work of both there has been one underlying characteristic—simplicity. The former has produced a machine stripped indeed of encumbering complexities, in which the restriction of accessories to what is absolutely necessary is carried to a fine art; the latter with that very machine has performed experiments in the air that the most sanguine enthusiast of a few years back would have deemed far beyond the region of the possible. In his graceful air diving, looping the loop, and flying upside down, he gave the world a great object-lesson of the materiality of air. He showed the air can give the aviator as much support as the water can to a fancy swimmer. He showed that if the aëroplane is an unstable thing, the human brain can supply the stability; that in human flight, like the bird and its wings, the machine and individual can be in closest touch. No one has stripped the air of its terrors as has M. Pégoud. In the yielding air there is indeed safety! It is the ground the aviator has to fear!

I have spoken of the simplicity of the Blériot monoplane. In the machine with which M. Blériot flew over the Channel in 1909, stretched like the wings of a bird on either side of a tubular wooden frame partly covered with canvas and tapering to the rear, are placed the two supporting planes, rounded at the ends. At the front end is placed the motor (in the original type a three-cylindered engine, now replaced by the Gnome motor), geared direct to a 6 feet 6 inches wooden propeller, and on a level with the rear end of the planes. Immediately behind the engine is the petrol tank, and behind that the aviator’s seat. Near the rear end of the frame and underneath it is the fixed tail, with two movable elevating tips. How simple is the working of this monoplane! Moving a lever backwards and forwards actuates the tips of the fixed tail at the back of the machine, and causes it to rise or fall. Moving the same lever from side to side warps the rear surfaces of the supporting planes. The act of pushing from side to side a bar on which the aviator’s feet rest puts the rudder into action and steers the machine.

The triumphs of the Blériot monoplane would fill many pages. It was the first machine to fly over an expanse of water—the Channel. Later, it carried M. Prior from London to Paris without a stop, traversing 250 miles in three hours 56 minutes, beating the performances of the fleetest express trains by three hours. If it no longer for the moment holds the record of height, which it has so often done, it carried M. Garros up to a height of 5,000 metres. When his engine broke down at that prodigious height, by its superb gliding powers it brought him safely to earth!

It has flown over the Alpine peaks! It carried the first aëroplane post—1,750 letters and cards—from Hendon to Windsor in seventeen minutes!

In 1911 Blériot No. XI. flew with ten persons on board.

Its past records have indeed fitted it to be a military machine. It is doubtlessly destined to play an important rôle in the present war in the hands of the French aviators. Especially suitable is this type for the one-seated military machine. Often it may be desirable to employ a two-seated machine to carry pilot and observer; but there is often, too, a use for the single-seated type of machine flying at a rate of some eighty miles an hour. The work of these observers is to make swift dashes over the enemy’s lines, make a speedy reconnaissance of the enemy’s position, and return at once to headquarters with what information has been obtained.

The following are the dimensions, etc., of the 1914 type of armoured Blériot monoplanes:—

The Antoinette Monoplane.

There is another monoplane that will figure in the history of aëronautics—the Antoinette monoplane. This was the first flying machine to fly in a wind. Up to the time that Mr. Latham went to the flying meeting at Blackpool, which took place almost immediately after the famous Rheims meeting, aviators had only dared to fly in calm weather. On the flying grounds there used to be tiny flags on posts. When the flags hung down limply that was the time for flying. When they moved about, even languidly, that was the time to put the aëroplane to rest in its shed. Aviators then underestimated the capabilities of their own machines.

When the aviators came to England the island breezes kept the little flags vigorously moving about. The aviators were consternated. The public was disappointed. It began to regard flight as a calm-weather business. Aëroplanes could not face one breath of wind! Of what practical use would they ever be!

Latham at that time had his Antoinette monoplane at Blackpool. It consisted of large and strongly built wings, giving a surface of about 575 square feet, set at a dihedral angle. The motor was some 60 h.p. At the back of the body of the machine were fixed horizontal and vertical fins. There were hinged horizontal planes at the end of the tail for elevating or lowering the machine. “Ailerons” were used on the main surface for controlling lateral stability. One day, at Blackpool, Latham went up in a very high wind, and remained in the air for a considerable time. How much of the stability of his machine was due to his dexterity, or how much to the machine, it is difficult to say. Probably the fact that the wings were set at a dihedral angle had much to do with it. He also had a much larger horse power than his contemporaries, which no doubt contributed to his success. Anyhow, by the Antoinette monoplane flight was redeemed from the reproach that it was merely a pastime for ideal weather conditions. From that time aviators have sought the winds as well as the calms. Now aircraft can fly in winds of forty-eight or even fifty miles an hour! This step of Latham gave a great impetus towards the military adoption of the aëroplane. The military and naval mind tends to despise what is only of use in the most favourable conditions. It had put aside the airship till it could combat moderate winds. It did the same with the aëroplane.

The Wright, Farman, and Blériot machines may be described as the parent types from which have sprung the large variety which at the present time are at the disposal of the aviator. Amongst the various types which have sprung from the parent forms we search in vain for any underlying new principles, if we except the Dunne machine. There is, however, in the various types plenty of variety of constructional detail. Perhaps the two most important features of modern aëroplane work are (1), the gradual substitution of steel in place of wood, and the general strengthening of aëroplane construction; (2), the armouring of vital parts of aëroplanes for the exigencies of warfare. Of this latter innovation mention will be made later. Regarding the various types of machines now available, it must suffice in this chapter to especially mention a few which have features of special interest for the purpose of warlike operations.

The success of the operations of the British aëroplanists in the war is evidence of the efficiency of the apparatus being used. The British military aëronautical authorities have evolved a very useful form of aëroplane. In present circumstances, however, detailed description of this must be omitted.

Weight-Lifting Machines.

i. The Cody Biplane.—The Cody type was quite an experimental machine. It should not, however, be without notice, as it was an early effort towards the production of weight-lifting machines. These, in the future, will have to be evolved if the aëroplane is to take a large part in offensive operations. Scouting and offensive work call for different types of machines. The Cody biplane had the largest supporting surface that has been made, excepting that of Sir Hiram Maxim’s flying machine. The two main surfaces were 52 feet in length, 7 feet 6 inches wide. They had a supporting surface of 775 square feet. But this was small compared with the Maxim giant, which spread 4,000 square feet of surface. In the Cody machine the front elevators, which bore some of the load, alone represented 150 square feet. The two vertical rudders were at equal distances fore and aft of the main supporting surfaces. A distinctive feature was the elevator. This was in two separate parts, each of which could be moved independently of the other. Cody adopted the method of the brothers Wright for attaining lateral stability and steering—warping the main surfaces.

There were vertical and horizontal rudders operated by a single steering wheel. Cody used generally an 80 h.p. engine, but in some of his experiments he went up to 130 h.p. A peculiarity of the screws was their greater width at the base than at the tips. The weight of the machine was about one ton. Though it was such a large machine some attempts were made to give it portability. The two ends of the main decks, each 16 feet long, were removable. The girder supporting the elevator could also be detached, as the rear rudder frame was made to fold back against the body. With this machine Cody flew at excellent speeds, averaging fifty miles an hour. On one occasion he was credited with seventy miles an hour.

It was the Cody machine which won the first prizes which were open to the world at the military trials in 1912. Of all the earlier practical fliers in this country no one perhaps did so much to popularise flight as Cody. His pluck and perseverance, despite the constant disasters that were his lot, gained British appreciation, and all recognised that if he was not a man of letters he was one of intuition. His well-known man-lifting kite, unequalled indeed for the purpose for which it was designed, was an example of the illuminating flashes that were wont to cross his brain. It was not the product of calculation, but the happy thought.

ii. Maurice Farman Biplane.—A type of weight-carrying machine that has survived is that designed by Mr. Henry Farman’s brother, Mr. Maurice Farman. This machine has extensions to its main surfaces, which enable it to carry a considerable weight. It has been found capable of remaining in the air a very long time, which is an important consideration for war use, especially when the aëroplane is on the offensive. It is capable of flying at a very low speed. A disadvantage is that it requires very skilful piloting, especially when used in high winds.

The Breguet Biplane.

Very conspicuous in the Paris Salon exhibitions has been the Breguet biplane. This is one of very advanced type; it is a military machine par excellence. Simplicity and portability throughout are its distinguishing features, and these are the essence of a machine designed for war. One might almost call it a combination of monoplane and biplane construction. There is the familiar tapering of the framework, with controlling planes at the end, such as in the Blériot, but two superposed planes, instead of the bird-like projecting wings of the Blériot, are above and below the body of the machine. Steel enters largely into the design. There is a maximum of supporting struts between the main surfaces. These are constructed with thin metal ribs, and are therefore flexible, an exceedingly important feature, rendering the machine exceptionally stable in high and gusty winds. For portability the main surfaces can be taken out of position in a few minutes. By the excellent method of hinging the planes to the body of the machine the former may be turned back and folded up beside the body of the machine. The aëroplane can therefore be described as a folding-up one. It can therefore travel on the road like a motor-car, instead of having to be packed up and conveyed in a wagon. This method of road conveyance would be impracticable with a machine with its wings outspread.

The Short Double-Engined Aëroplane.

How many times have engines failed during flight on both monoplanes and biplanes! How many tragedies have thus been enacted! Time and experience indeed have mitigated this type of aërial disaster. The improvement in engines has been one cause of salvation in this respect, the practice of vol-planing the other. But even now from the seat of war comes the news of engines that fail and machines that drop into the realm of the enemy. The old proverb of having two strings to one’s bow should apply to aëronautics.

The desideratum, indeed, is the duplication of such a vital part as the motor. Considerations of weight have been the hindrance to engine duplication. Mr. Short has given very special attention to this matter, and has designed what appears to be an excellent machine, undoubtedly of military value. The biplane is supplied with two Gnome motors. One drives the screws in the front of the machine, and placed a considerable distance apart. The other drives a single screw behind the planes. In the ordinary way both engines run at moderate speed, but if one fails the acceleration of the speed of the other will keep the machine flying.

The Vendôme Monoplane.

A monoplane which has repute in France for strength, general aptitude, and convenience is the Vendôme type. It has been especially commended by experts on account of the quickness with which it can be put together and dismantled. The only criticism to which it has been exposed is, perhaps, that it is a little too strong for requisite lightness, and that a modification of the metallic portions might reduce weight without sacrifice of efficiency. This machine throughout is made of hickory wood.

Breguet-Bristol Biplane.

This is one of the newest machines France has at her disposal. It is a happy combination of British and French make, due to the collaboration of two firms, the Bristol Company and La Société Breguet.

The result of the combination is said to be eminently satisfactory. A distinguishing feature of this machine is rapid dismantlement. There are two pairs of wings. These are identical, interchangeable, and connected in each case by a flexible partition, which permits of the wings being laterally straightened up. The area of this interesting machine is 39 square metres; length, 8.90 metres; span, 11.50 metres.

The Destroyer Nieuport Monoplane.

During this year, even before the outbreak of war, the aëroplane had been well armoured and armed. A striking example of an armoured air-scouting machine is the Nieuport monoplane. This type has obtained brilliant result. Equipped with pilot, bombs, and armament it has flown at the rate of 145 kilometres an hour, risen at the rate of 500 metres in 3 minutes 45 seconds, made its departure and landed within an enclosure of 150 square metres.

This monoplane has 24 square metres of surface, and weighs more than 1,000 kgs. The armoury is carried out by a cuirass of steel or nickel plates, which cover the vital front parts and the place where the pilot sits.

Armoured Clement-Bayard Monoplane.

This new type is exceedingly well armoured, the protective caps covering the motor and the middle of the machine.

The following are the dimensions, etc.:—

On June 6th last the French military aviators with their armoured and armed aëroplanes were reviewed at Villacoublay by General Joffre and General Bernard, the director of military aëronautics. Amongst the types of aëroplanes present was the Dorand biplane, having two Gnome motors driving separate screws, armoured in its vital parts, and armed with a Hotchkiss mitrailleuse. This was mounted on a pivot, and could be fired in almost every direction. There were, too, the Morane-Saulnier, Blériot-Gouin, Nieuport, and Breguet-Bristol types.

M. Raymond, in his speech before the Senate in February last, said that Germany was in possession of armoured aëroplanes, but that France had none. The June review at Villacoublay showed what vast strides in military aëroplane construction the French had made in a few months.

The French military aëroplanes consist of Farman types, and many other leading French forms. In 1913 there were about 500 French military aëroplanes and a few naval hydroplanes.

France manufactures a great number of aëroplanes, of late years about 1,000 per year. These include Government machines, those of private owners and export machines. There are at least twenty-nine French flying grounds, many of them flying schools and trial grounds of the leading French airship and aëroplane makers.

In 1913 Italy appears to have had about a hundred military aëroplanes, including those on order, Blériots, Bristol (monoplanes), Farmans, Nieuports, and others. She had six or eight naval aëroplanes. She is well provided with military flying schools and other flying grounds, nearly all fitted with hangars.

There are military airship hangars at Rome, Milan, Verona, Venice, and Bracciano.

Belgium has a military school of aviation near Antwerp, and in 1913 she had as many as twenty-four military aëroplanes—H. Farman, 80 h.p. Gnome. There are in Belgium about half a dozen flying grounds, and as many aërial societies or clubs.

As already stated, Germany, in the first instance, looked to Austria-Hungary for her aëroplanes, and the Etrich was an Austrian machine. In late years, however, Austria’s aëroplanes were mainly Lohners; the Government favoured this make and discouraged others, consequently enterprise and invention languished. After the accident to the Aspern the Lohner was condemned as of too feeble a resistance, and meanwhile discouragement had effaced all the other systems.

Aëroplanes are used both in the Russian army and navy. Those of the navy are hydro-aëroplanes, or capable of being so arranged. In number, the Russian navy has about a dozen. Of military aëroplanes Russia has probably from 250 to about 300, many of them of modern type, and built in Russia, the principal types being Rumpler, Albatross, Aviatik, Nieuport, Farman, Bristol and Deperdussin.

Bulgaria has a number of aëroplanes, mainly Blériots and Bristols.

Sykorsky’s Giant Aëroplane.

A very remarkable type of aëroplane is the giant biplane invented by the Russian aviator Sykorsky. It doubtless marks the beginning of a new era in the construction of machines on the heavier-than-air principle. Most aviators have shirked the use of a machine that could carry a large number of persons. It would seem that Russia is destined to take the lead in this class of machine, which may before long put the lighter-than-air Zeppelins entirely out of date. The machine of Sykorsky is not, indeed, a mere project, but a reality, for at Petrograd on February 25th, it flew for eighteen minutes with sixteen passengers on board. They represented a weight of 1,300 kilogrammes. The height attained in this flight was 300 metres. On February 27th the machine flew from Petrograd to Tsarskoe Selo and back again, taking nine persons, in two hours six minutes, at a height of 1,000 metres. The performance constituted a triple record of distance, height, and duration of flight with nine persons on board.

The following are the dimensions, etc.:—

The motors are placed in groups of two on each side of the body of the machine. Each pair works a screw and each individual motor can be put into action and stopped separately. The body of the machine contains a chamber for the pilots three square metres in size, a passenger salon of five square metres, and two other chambers of three and two square metres respectively. The whole are lit by four windows on each side. The rooms can be artificially lighted by electricity and warmed by motor gas. There are, indeed, future possibilities for such a machine in war!

I have mentioned that the type of aëroplane devised by Lieutenant Dunne is characterised by a distinctive principle of its own. The claim is made that it is automatically stable. It has, however, rather a claim to “inherent stability” than “automatic stability,” if we accept the terms as Professor Bryan has defined them.

The following details appeared in the “Aëronautical Journal”:—

On several occasions, while flying on this machine, the pilot used both hands for writing and making notes, leaving the machine uncontrolled, and came down with his hands raised above his head.

Germany has many forms of aëroplanes, and these will be treated of in the next chapter.