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An Egyptian oasis

Chapter 24: INDEX
By H. J. L. Beadnell
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About This Book

The author presents a detailed account of a Libyan-Desert oasis, combining topography, geology, and human history. He describes the physical layout, extinct lakes, and the subterranean aqueducts and artesian water-sources that sustain cultivation. The book surveys archaeological remains and monuments from successive ancient regimes and documents an Early Christian necropolis. It examines sand-dune dynamics, methods of boring and water extraction, and land-reclamation experiments. Maps, photographs, and plans illustrate caravan routes, geology, and aqueducts. Practical economic observations on irrigation, village life, and the ongoing struggle between cultivation and encroaching desert conclude the study.

SAND EROSION ON SUMMIT OF JEBEL TARIF.

In order to protect his crops from the fierce onslaught of wind-borne sand the native is compelled to erect fences and barricades along the northern boundaries of his fields. These serve his purpose for the time being, the sand which would otherwise have cut and beaten down the growing crops being deposited on either side of the fence, where the velocity of the wind is checked. The arrested sand accumulates with increasing rapidity as the size of the obstruction becomes greater, a veritable dune, constituting a really efficient protection to the cultivated lands, being formed over the site of the original small and insignificant hedge. Unfortunately, this sand continues to collect, and although the cultivator may have satisfactorily insured himself against the frequent damage caused to his crops by their exposure to wind-driven sand, he is now confronted with the still more serious prospect of having his lands overwhelmed by the ever-increasing dunes, which have grown to considerable proportions as the result of his efforts to protect himself.

Fortunately for the occupiers of these outlying settlements, the progress of such dunes, formed more or less artificially on the northerly sides of the cultivated tracts, is not at the same rate as that of isolated dunes moving across the open desert plain. Owing to the presence of a certain amount of moisture in the superficial layers of the ground in the neighbourhood of the wells and the cultivated lands, plants of various kinds are enabled to thrive, with the result that the dunes become to some extent ‘fixed’ by wild vegetation. The most valuable plant in this connection is the tamarisk, which by means of immensely long roots continues to thrive and keep its head above growing dunes with remarkable facility. To a certain extent, moreover, the moisture from the soil itself rises by capillarity into the base of the sand, and assists the vegetation in binding it into a compact mass, which is not liable to movement in the same degree as dry sand. The rate of progress of such dunes may therefore be reduced to a considerable extent, but the movement can never be altogether stopped. As we have seen in the case of the hamlet of Meheriq, the sand eventually gets the upper hand, blotting out the arable lands, burying the palm-groves, and forcing man to abandon his habitations.

In the neighbourhood of the Corporation’s Headquarters a considerable area of the floor of the depression has been brought under cultivation during the last three years. This tract is exposed on every side, there being no protection whatever in the shape of natural features. Although occasional sandstorms are experienced from the south, and even from the east and west sides, practically the whole of the trouble encountered comes from northerly sandstorms and sand-laden winds. It was found quite impossible to raise crops unless the fields were protected by storm-walls or fences, the young plants being cut down as if by a scythe. So long as the reclamation of land proceeded from south to north at a fairly rapid rate, the accumulation of sand against these fences was of little moment, being, indeed, rather welcome than otherwise, as the sand was found to be of considerable value when spread out and ploughed into the heavy clay soil with which this area is superficially covered. When, however, a storm-wall remains for several consecutive months exposed to the open desert to the north, the accumulation of sand becomes a more serious matter, and care has to be taken to avoid the formation of dunes, which it might be afterwards difficult to get rid of. A fairly satisfactory mode of procedure is the planting of narrow belts of ‘sesban,’ or other quickly-growing shrub, along the northern limits of the newly reclaimed lands; a hedge of this description forms an efficient shelter to the fields, while at the same time it allows a good deal of the sand to filter through and become absorbed by the soil.

THE CORPORATION’S HOMESTEAD (HEADQUARTERS).

Most of the dunes in the Gennâh district are more or less covered with tamarisk and other wild vegetation, but that their progression southwards has only been retarded, and not prevented, is evident from an examination of the country. Large areas of land have been abandoned owing to the invasion of the dunes, and the magnificent wells of Gennâh are threatened with destruction within a very short term of years, unless special measures are adopted to cope with the advance of the sand. The available land in the vicinity of the village has long been insufficient to utilize the water discharged by these wells, which has in consequence to be led by a channel of several kilometres in length to lower ground south-east of the Gorn el Gennâh. This channel is being constantly pushed to the south, and as the ground rises in that direction, it may eventually become impossible to maintain the conduit at a sufficiently low level to carry the water of the wells to this outlying district.

The southern portion of the oasis is the only area where sand and wind can be said to be of any actual benefit to the inhabitants, but in this area, owing to the broad plains of alluvial clay, the suspended material consists to a very great extent of fine argillaceous particles. At many of the wells in the Dakhakhin and Beris districts the cultivators encourage the gradual deposition on their fields of the sand and clay-dust borne by the northerly winds. The mixture forms an excellent loam, and an annual dressing of the material is regarded as desirable, and even necessary, on account of its value as a fertilizer. The result of this gradual deposition of wind-borne material has been that the cultivated terraces have in many cases attained to such elevations that the discharges of the wells have suffered very considerable diminution, owing to the increased height of the outlets.

To the west of the villages of Maks and Beris the great belt of sand has already enveloped a number of wells, and appears to be still encroaching—as the individual dunes follow their normal course in a direction slightly east of south—on the area occupied by the existing cultivated lands. Fortunately there are still extensive tracts of cultivable land comparatively free from accumulations of drift sand, and doubtless the inhabitants, when driven by the irresistible forces of Nature from the localities they now occupy, will again, as they have so frequently been compelled to do in the past, migrate to pastures new.

CHAPTER XV
SOME ECONOMICAL ASPECTS OF THE OASIS

The Staple Crops of the Oasis — Rice the Summer Crop in Northern Kharga — The Value of Rice in the Reclamation of Land — The Date Harvest — Conditions under which the Date-Palm flourishes — Varieties — Propagation — The Doum-Palm — Lucerne — Its Value in Land-Reclamation — The Vine — Oranges and Other Fruits — The Wadi Molûk — Earthy Minerals — The Ancient Alum Mines — The Phosphatic Deposits.

The staple crops of the oasis are dates, rice, wheat, and barley, while for fodder large quantities of lucerne are grown. It seems at first sight a curious anomaly that in an arid region, where water is so scarce and precious a commodity, rice should be grown as the summer crop. Few, if any, plants require such an abundance of water as rice, which from the time of sowing to that of reaping has to be continually irrigated by fresh water, the fields being, indeed, during the whole period that the crop is on the ground, in a constant state of saturation. Rice does not thrive in stagnant water, and it is noticeable that the best crops in the oasis are raised on lands which have a decided slope, and over which fresh water can be kept constantly running. The proper irrigation of a rice-field is a matter of no small difficulty, and the ingenious manner in which the oasis cultivator lays out his irrigating channels and subdivides them by means of notched weirs, so as to insure every portion of the crop getting a continuous supply of fresh water, is well worthy of close examination.

In the Nile Delta, according to Sir William Willcocks,[13] rice requires about twice as much water as the other commonly-grown crops, but in the oases I do not think I am mistaken in saying that it needs three times as much as any other grain. Rice appears to have been grown from time immemorial, and certainly at the present day the inhabitants would as soon think of giving up their date-trees as of replacing it by any other crop. Now, however, that facilities exist for the export of farm-produce to the Nile Valley markets, it will be interesting to observe whether rice will to any extent be replaced by more valuable crops.

In Upper Egypt the summer crop is largely durra millet (sorghum), but this plant does not thrive in the oasis, though whether on account of an uncongenial soil or owing to unsuitable climatic conditions I am unable to say. It has frequently been tried—in fact, small areas are annually planted, but never produce crops—at any rate, in the northern part of Kharga—in any sense comparable with those of the Nile Valley. The very fact that durra cannot be satisfactorily grown suggests a probable reason why rice, the least valuable of the Egyptian cereals, and the one requiring most water, is so universally grown in Northern Kharga. Rice, as is well known, will grow on land containing a proportion of salts which would be injurious, or even fatal, to the majority of crops, and will at the same time exercise a beneficial and cleansing effect on such land. The growing of rice may therefore have come about through the actual necessity for a periodical cleansing of land, which would otherwise have become salted to a sufficient extent to adversely affect other crops grown on the same ground. At the present day, barley and wheat alternate with rice.

The thorough and prolonged soaking to which land is subject when under rice is in itself of considerable value to succeeding crops, and in the reclamation of heavy clay-lands in the Headquarters district my experience has been that as a first crop there is nothing to equal this cereal. In many cases, indeed, it was found to be the only crop which could be at all satisfactorily raised on new lands with only a moderate application of manure. A good tilth, moreover, is far more rapidly obtained than when other crops are grown, the difference in the second and third years between lands which have and have not had rice on them being most marked.

I was much surprised to find that rice is not grown in the southern districts of the oasis, with the exception of a couple of small areas near Dakhakhin. Extended inquiries failed to elicit satisfactory reasons for this remarkable difference from the practice followed in the north, the universal reply to my questions being that they, the inhabitants, in not growing rice, were merely following the custom of their ancestors! I noticed, however, that durra was grown on a much larger scale than in the north of the oasis, and that the crops in some cases reached a fairly good standard. It seems probable, therefore, that in this part of the depression the soil is of higher average quality, so that the land, renovated by the annual deposition of a fresh layer of wind-borne sand and clay-dust in the manner already described, does not need a periodical cleansing by rice. This, at least, is the only satisfactory explanation which has occurred to me.

The harvesting of the date-crop in September and October is the most important event of the year in Kharga Oasis. A large portion of the crop is exported to the Nile Valley, the Bedawin becoming traders for the time being, and transporting the produce across the desert by means of camels. There are over 60,000 adult date-palms, the chief palm-groves being at Kharga, Gennâh, and Bulaq in the north, and at Beris in the south. The selling-price in the oasis fluctuates to some extent, but averages twenty piastres a ‘weba’ of between 60 and 70 pounds, the weight of a weba varying considerably according to the moistness of the fruit and the astuteness of the man entrusted with the measuring. The price works out roughly at 4 pounds for threepence.

In a book[14] entitled “The Great Sahara,” published nearly fifty years ago, Canon Tristram gives a very full account of the cultivation of the date-palm in North Africa. The date-palm (Phœnix dactilifera) is a tree specially characteristic of the Sahara, where the climate is marked by deficiency of rainfall and by considerable variations of temperature. Although it flourishes best in rainless regions, the date-palm will not fruit unless its roots are well watered; it must, indeed, as the native proverb puts it, ‘have its head in the fire and its roots in water.’

In Egypt there are about fifty varieties of date-palm the chief kinds in Kharga Oasis being the Saîdi, Tamar, Fâlig, and Hamrâwi. The Saîdi dates of the oases are generally considered to be superior in flavour to almost any other Egyptian variety, and have in consequence a ready sale in the Nile Valley. The other varieties are not exported to any great extent, except, perhaps, the Fâlig; the Tamar, while producing a heavier crop than the other kinds, yields fruit of comparatively poor quality, which is on that account almost entirely used for home consumption. The Hamrâwi trees are very limited in number, but produce fruit of large size and excellent flavour; Hamrâwi dates are, however, I believe, regarded as having bad keeping properties.

Dates are met with of almost every variety of colour except pure black or white. All the different kinds ripen at or about the same time—in the early part of September. A tree will bear from eight to ten bunches, each carrying from 12 to 20 pounds of fruit, so that in full bearing it will yield from 100 to 200 pounds of dates annually. The fruit exported from the oases, being entirely disposed of in the native markets of the Nile Valley, is packed and sewn up without any special care in palm-leaf baskets. For local use small quantities of selected fruit are frequently preserved in a moist state in earthenware jars.

Date-stones cast on the ground and accidentally buried under an inch or two of soil will germinate freely, but the resulting plants are of little use. Not one in a hundred will turn out of the same variety as its parent, so that plants raised from seed must in the great majority of cases be regarded as bastards, of no value as fruit-producers. In Kharga all new trees are raised from slipped plants—that is to say, from the young shoots which spring up at the butts of the parent trees. These are detached and planted out separately on new ground. The greatest care has to be taken to protect them from hot winds and sandstorms, and they must be watered daily for a number of weeks after being planted. Growth is very slow for the first two years, and even under the most favourable conditions the trees will not commence to bear fruit for five or six years. Date-palms come into full bearing when from twenty to twenty-five years old, and may live to a century or more. Every year the lowest ring of branches is cut off, so that the age of a tree can be fairly accurately ascertained by counting the rings of notches on the stem. The wild, unkempt, weather-beaten trees occasionally met with in outlying, uninhabited portions of the oasis have a very different appearance from the trim, erect palms of the cultivated areas.

In the oases and in other parts of Egypt a fermented liquor called ‘lagmi,’ with a peculiar insipid taste, is obtained by making a deep incision in the top of the date-palm, the liquid oozing out and being collected in a vessel, generally made of the rind of a gourd. As much as 10 quarts can be obtained in a day, and the tree may be bled once or twice a month without sustaining any harm; the operation may, in fact, prove of considerable benefit to a sickly palm. A very strong spirit—date-brandy—is also made from the fruit.

Tristram records that the heart or cabbage of a date-palm, which in taste is said to resemble the sweet potato, is eaten by the natives when a tree falls or is blown down. The uses to which the leaves, fibre, and wood of the date-palm are put are innumerable, and include the manufacture of such diverse articles as baskets, mats, ropes, and saddles.

The doum-palm, or gingerbread-tree, flourishes in a semi-wild state in many parts of the oasis, more especially in the tract of country lying between Gennâh and Bulaq. The fruit is brown and mealy, and, in localities where the trees are properly tended, is said to be very nutritious, and to resemble gingerbread in taste and colour. In some parts of the Sahara the spongy internal portion of the nut forms an important article of food, and when mixed with an infusion of dates constitutes a cooling drink much valued for use in cases of febrile disorders.

DOUM-PALMS AT AIN GIRM MESHIM.

Although pasture or grazing lands can hardly be said to exist in the Western sense of the term, lucerne is very commonly grown in Kharga to provide a supply of green fodder for cattle. The plant seems to be peculiarly adapted to the local conditions, and is often kept on the ground for long periods, the crop providing very frequent cuttings and improving from year to year. It is seldom or never grazed direct, probably for the reason that cattle are apt to pull the plants out by the roots, the ground on which it best thrives being very loose and sandy. In the reclamation of new lands, where the soil is deficient in organic matter and nitrogen, this leguminous plant has been found to be of very great value. Excellent results were obtained at Headquarters on desert surfaces which had never previously borne vegetation. On the more sandy areas the plant quickly established itself, becoming in the second year an even and strongly-growing crop from 18 inches to 2 feet high, yielding heavy cuttings every few weeks. For benefiting a poor soil by the introduction of nitrogen from the atmosphere probably nothing could be found to excel lucerne, which, judging by the numerous and well-marked nodules formed on the roots, acts as a most efficient host-plant for nitrogen-fixing bacteria. My attention was first drawn to these nodules by Mr. D. Milne, who was formerly in charge of the agricultural work at Headquarters, and both he and my present assistant, Mohammed Said, an Egyptian agriculturist of wide practical experience, have formed a very high opinion of the utility of lucerne in the reclamation and fertilization of raw and new desert soils.

In ancient days the vine was extensively cultivated in the oases, and under the Romans there appears to have been a considerable trade in wine. At the present day excellent oranges, as well as apricots, mulberries, and olives, are grown in both Kharga and Dakhla, but only in comparatively small quantities, though the soil and climate appear to be eminently suited to the cultivation of fruit-trees.

Cotton cannot be said to be cultivated in the oases, as the very occasional plots one meets with are evidence that its culture is not understood by the natives, who aim at the production of wood rather than fibre. Experiments made at Headquarters, however, show that many Nile Valley crops not hitherto grown in Kharga, such as cotton, sugar-cane, and beans, can be successfully raised without difficulty.

There exists in the possession of His Excellency Johnson Pasha, formerly of the Egyptian Ministry of Justice, a curious old Arabic document, purporting to describe the so-called Wadi el Molûk, or Valley of the Kings, a depression or valley in which, according to tradition, large quantities of gold, silver, and other precious metals exist. The place is described in true Oriental fashion, and the manuscript relates in detail how the route, starting from an old monastery in the neighbourhood of Esna, proceeds. According to the information given, the Wadi el Molûk would appear to lie somewhere within the desert triangle between the points Esna, Aswân, and Beris, but although a number of more or less serious attempts have been made to discover its whereabouts, this El Dorado has not yet been located. Judging by the geological conditions—so far as they are known in the area in question—one might, with equally good chances of success, search for metalliferous deposits of gold and silver in the Weald of the South of England.

Earthy minerals exist in the oasis of Kharga, and appear to have been extensively mined by the ancients in some localities. Deposits of ochre occur near several of the wells to the east and south-east of Kharga village, notably to the west of Ain Aid, to the west of Ain Khalîl, and to the north of Ain Girgâwi. The best occurrences are to the south of the Gorn el Gennâh, in which district the ferruginous waters of certain wells have deposited thick banks of ochre along their channels.

The sulphates of aluminium and magnesium are widely distributed in the oasis, though the deposits are seldom of sufficient extent to repay extraction. They occur as thin bands in the shales and sandstones of the surface-water series, seldom exceeding a few centimetres in thickness, and being generally of very limited horizontal extent. The alum, which is often found in beautiful fibrous or hair-like crystalline masses, is frequently of a delicate rose tint, and analysis shows the colour to be due to the presence of small quantities of cobalt. Epsomite (Epsom salts or hydrous sulphate of magnesia) is also found in fibrous crystalline seams, a remarkably pure deposit, containing several hundred tons, having been quite recently located a few kilometres west of Headquarters.

In the foot-hills to the north of Bellaida, at the base of the eastern slopes of Jebel Tarif, and in the hills immediately to the west of Qasr Lebekha, ancient mines of the most extensive description are to be seen. The rocks in these localities consist of variegated sandstones and grits, many of the beds being so dark and ferruginous that the hills, as a whole, have a blackened and almost volcanic appearance. They are literally honeycombed with ancient workings, many of which, both in the form of large chambers and narrow tunnels, penetrate for long distances underground. Huge dump-heaps mark the entrances of the workings, and bear witness to the enormous quantities of ‘country’ rock removed in the winning of the useful mineral. The rude shelters built by the miners are to be seen in the immediate vicinity, and in many cases are still intact.

A WADI IN JEBEL TARIF.

A RIVER OF SAND NEAR UM EL DABADIB.

The extent and magnitude of the underground workings prove that whatever the mineral mined, it was a substance of considerable value in those days; and an examination of the blind terminations of the tunnels occasionally reveals the presence of very thin seams of aluminium sulphate, which, in the absence of indications of other useful minerals, we must conclude was the substance sought. The bands of alum were evidently followed until they thinned out to a fraction of an inch, or disappeared altogether.

A reference to the geological sequence will show the stratigraphical position of the phosphatic series of the oasis, consisting of hard bands composed of fish-remains, coprolites, and phosphatic nodules. The beds have a wide extension in Northern Kharga, and are especially well developed on the flanks of Jebel Tarwan and Jebel Têr, in the centre of the depression. As a rule, they consist of an upper brown-coloured series, individual beds of which in places have a thickness of 2 or 3 metres, and a lower division consisting of three or four thin, hard, and lighter-coloured bands, in which the phosphatic nodules are often cemented by iron pyrites. The upper bands may contain anything up to 60 per cent. of tricalcium phosphate, so that the deposit may be regarded as of considerable potential value.

CHAPTER XVI
SOME NOTES ON SPORT AND NATURAL HISTORY

The Libyan Desert as a Sporting Region — The Dorcas Gazelle — Snipe — Wild-Fowl — The Local Sportsmen — An all-night Sitting — Quail — Sand-Grouse — Rock-Pigeons — Turtle-Doves — Various — Striped Hyæna — Jackals — Three Species of Fox — The Desert Fox — The True Fennec.

Sportsmen who reckon the success and pleasures of a shooting expedition only by the contents of the resulting bag are advised to give a wide berth to the Libyan Desert, as in that arid region—with the exception of one restricted area far removed from the oasis under description—no game is to be found which cannot be obtained far more easily, and in much greater quantities, in the cultivated plains of the Nile Valley and on the adjoining desert margins. On the other hand, the sportsman who does not regard too seriously the actual head of game brought to bag, and who has no objection to hard work, will find in the oases undoubted attractions in the way of rough sport. Provided with a few camels to carry the necessary impedimenta, so as to be rendered independent and able to wander about at will, a very enjoyable time can be spent exploring the various isolated portions of the depression where gazelles abound, and visiting the numerous outlying wells where wild-fowl, snipe, quail, sand-grouse, and rock-pigeons are to be met with in fair quantities.

The little Dorcas gazelle ranges over the whole of the Libyan Desert. On the plateau, owing to the extreme scarcity and scantiness of vegetation, gazelles seldom remain in the same locality for any length of time, and even when met with can rarely be approached, owing to the open nature of the country. In the more fertile oases-depressions they are to be seen in far greater numbers, especially in the outlying portions where large tracts are covered with coarse grasses, tamarisk, and other kinds of scrub. After nightfall they frequently descend to the cultivated lands to browse on the crops, almost invariably retiring to the outlying desert areas at the first traces of dawn, though I recollect on one occasion bringing a laggard to bag very early in the morning on the edge of a barley-field at Um el Dabâdib. Gazelles are, in fact, seldom to be seen, unless carefully sought for in their special haunts; one might remain for months in the inhabited portions of the depression and only be aware of their existence from occasionally meeting with their spoor.

It is advisable when hunting gazelles to pitch camp at some distance from their grazing grounds, as they are extremely wary, and not to be approached once they have taken alarm. Extensive tracts of uninhabited, scrub-covered desert, like those to the north of Ain el Qasr, affording ample supplies of food, and undisturbed by man, are the favourite haunts of these extremely shy animals. For shooting this district an excellent camping-ground will be found on the edge of the scrub in the neighbourhood of Qasr Gyb, an ancient ruin conspicuously perched on the summit of a conical hillock, about 20 kilometres north of Meheriq. The dead parts of the scrub supply an abundance of fuel, and good water is obtainable by clearing out a section of the ancient underground aqueduct lying a short distance to the south. From the shelter of any of the higher clumps of vegetation one can, with the aid of field-glasses, keep a careful look-out over the surrounding scrub-covered country, and, once gazelles have been located, getting within range is merely a matter of patience and careful stalking. After sighting the quarry, it is best to proceed alone, as natives have an exasperating way of exposing themselves at the most critical moments. On my last visit to the north of the oasis there were a good many gazelles about, including a herd of some seven or eight; it was, however, quite impossible to get within 500 yards of these, but I had better luck with a solitary couple a few kilometres to the north of the old ruin, both of which I succeeded in bagging.

The Dorcas gazelle is one of the smallest and fleetest of the antelopes. When full grown, the buck stands about 22 inches high at the shoulder, the horns in my best head—not, however, shot in Kharga—measuring exactly 13 inches. Properly cooked, its flesh is excellent, and certainly superior to the average Egyptian mutton.

For snipe the best time is from December to February, though I have shot odd birds as early as October and as late as April. Both the full and the jack snipe are to be met with, their favourite feeding-grounds being the rice-stubbles immediately after the crops have been harvested, and before the ground has had time to get hard and dry. In the cold weather, however, almost any wet patch—and there are numerous small bogs at the lower ends of the paddy-fields and alongside leaky irrigation channels—will yield one or two couple. Formerly there was a very useful bit of ground at Ain el Tawîl, but the best place of all is close to the village of Gennâh, where a reedy bog of considerable size at times positively swarms with snipe. This place is rather difficult to shoot, and I used to consider I had done well if four or five couple were gathered.

Pools of various size, formed by drainage waters from the cultivated lands, are found scattered throughout the oasis, and in the early morning or late evening hours quite a respectable bag of wild-fowl can sometimes, with a little luck, be secured. I say sometimes advisedly, as where duck are concerned one has to compete with the local sportsmen, whose name is legion. Mallard, teal, and shoveller ducks are the most common, though several of the other species commonly found in the Nile Valley are also to be met with in the oasis.

The keenness of the Kharga sportsmen is well illustrated by the following incident: Encamped on one occasion for a week or two near the village, I was in the habit of pottering about of an evening with my gun, visiting the two or three pools within easy walking distance of the tents; but although there were a good many wild-fowl about, these had been worried to such an extent that they only remained on the ponds during the darkest hours of the night, preferring, indeed, to pass the day in solitude in the open desert than to turn themselves into targets for the never-ending practice of the local Nimrods. Thinking to get the better of both duck and natives, I made arrangements to visit a pool about three miles distant from the village, starting at an hour early enough to enable me to take up a good stand before daybreak. Fortified by biscuits and hot cocoa, I and my faithful retainer, Mohammed Abu Salem, left camp one chilly morning about three, riding the best part of the way on camels, over the roughest country imaginable. Half a mile from the pool we dismounted, and I proceeded alone on foot across cultivated lands, on which, to my astonishment, ploughing was already in progress, though it was still dark, wanting a full hour to dawn. Slowly and with some difficulty I made my way towards the thin streak of light that I knew marked the position of the pool, which in my mind’s eye I already pictured as covered with duck. Presently, to my surprise and disgust, a shot rang out; but this was nothing to my astonishment a few moments later, when, just as I was getting up to the water, a regular broadside was discharged. There seemed to be gunners all over the place, and my only concern now was to get out of their way as speedily as possible; so, ensconcing myself behind a small sand-hill, I lighted a pipe and awaited further developments. By careful manœuvring I was able to watch in moderate safety the glassy surface of the pond, and did not have to wait long before I heard a rattle of wings, followed by the swoop on to the water. No sooner had the birds alighted than they were greeted with a fusillade from all sides of the pool, after which silence once more reigned supreme. This performance was repeated every time duck or coot made their appearance, and few escaped the effects of the deadly cross-fire to which they were subjected.

When daylight appeared I counted over a dozen gunners squatting round the pond, although the latter measured no more than 120 to 130 yards across its widest part. They were armed with every sort of weapon, from the latest thing in cheap European breech-loaders to the most antiquated form of flint-lock, the barrel of the latter type of gun being usually of great length, and not unlike a piece of gas-pipe. As soon as daylight was sufficiently advanced, the natives proceeded to gather the slain, the bulk of the bag being made up of coots, which at night have a habit of deserting the depths of the rice-fields for a swim and change of food on the open pools. Each man seized the birds he considered had fallen to his gun, and I was struck by the small amount of squabbling which took place over the division of the spoil, most of the bickering having reference to complaints of being peppered, though the wonder was that no one had been killed, or even seriously hurt. As soon as everything was satisfactorily adjusted the majority of the men, having salaamed and expressed surprise at my presence, made off towards the village, only a few of the keener spirits remaining on the chance of further sport. To my delight, a flight of duck shortly afterwards put in an appearance, and I was able to score by bagging a couple as they passed suspiciously over the pond. The laugh was now on my side, as I need hardly say that the native never risks wasting his powder and shot on birds on the wing, and after some mutual banter they departed, leaving me in possession of the field.

Quantities of quail pass through the oasis on their annual migration from north to south and on their return journey in the opposite direction. The best bags can be made in the spring, when the corn is commencing to ripen, but sport is usually rendered difficult owing to the number of natives at work in the fields. The local sportsmen do not seem to consider quail worthy of their attention, probably because the birds so seldom show themselves except when on the wing. A good many are, however, secured by the peasants in traps.

Sand-grouse are to be met with in many parts of the depression, more especially near the outlying sparsely cultivated spots, the commonest variety found being one of the pin-tailed species. The sandy country round Gennâh is perhaps the best district. Rock-pigeons frequent the cultivated lands of Bellaida, to the north of the village of Kharga, and have their homes in the rocky fastnesses of Jebel Têr and Jebel Tarif, breeding in perfect security in the fissures which traverse the limestone rocks of those hills. Turtle-doves are found in the more wooded portions of the oasis, their favourite haunts being the old spreading acacias which line the water-channels and mark the sources of the ancient wells. Although not as a rule regarded as coming into the category of game-birds, turtle-doves are by no means to be despised when one has failed to replenish the larder from ordinary sources. When disturbed in their favourite haunts, the birds fly rapidly from tree to tree, and shooting has to be both straight and quick if anything of a bag is to be made. In addition to these an occasional plover or water-hen may be met with and be considered as worthy of record in the ‘various’ column of the game diary.

In the Nile Valley the striped hyæna has often afforded me a day’s amusement if not actual sport, but this animal is certainly not a resident in the oasis, though on rare occasions an individual crosses the plateau and remains for a few days within the depression. Jackals are common, though not nearly so numerous as in the neighbouring oasis of Dakhla. At night they prowl about the outskirts of the villages, and the din that a single couple can make must be heard to be believed. The cry is most weird, consisting of a succession of long melancholy wails, each one a little higher pitched than the preceding, followed finally by a quick succession of sharp yelps or barks.

Of foxes there appear to be three species in Egypt, the largest and best known being a variety of the common fox (Canis vulpes, subsp. ægyptiaca). Although this animal frequently makes its home on the margins of the bordering deserts, it is never found at any great distance from the villages of the Nile Valley, to which it invariably descends at dusk, returning to its lair in the early morning after spending the night roaming the cultivated lands in search of food. The smaller desert fox, or fennec (Canis famelicus), is found not only on the desert margins, but throughout the interior plateaux and depressions. A true denizen of the desert, this animal seldom approaches the abodes of man, and probably never penetrates into the cultivated lands on either side of the Nile. Thirdly, there is the diminutive little fox, the true fennec (Canis zerda), which, although found throughout the interior of the Libyan Desert tableland, is especially abundant in the oases-depressions.

Of this beautiful species the late Dr. Anderson, in his ‘Zoology of Egypt,’ wrote: “There is no authentic record of the Fennec having been discovered in a wild state by any European traveller. All the specimens which have been brought home have been obtained from Arabs.” This fox is, it is true, a very shy animal, so much so that during the course of many years’ work in almost every part of the Libyan Desert I never had the good fortune to observe one in its natural haunts, though its burrows were often met with, and my men at night occasionally succeeded in securing specimens in traps.

During the last year or two, however, while resident in Kharga Oasis, I have been more fortunate, having frequently observed these interesting little animals sitting near the entrances to their burrows or sniffing about in search of food on areas sparsely dotted with desert vegetation. Several pairs had burrows within a few kilometres of my headquarters, and were, I believe, responsible for fowls that disappeared from time to time from our farm-yard. Mr. P. von Adametz kept one of these tiny foxes in the mess for some time, but this particular animal, which had been caught in the neighbourhood of Meheriq, was evidently too old to become tame. Fennecs probably subsist mainly on desert gerbils and jerboas, which are always to be found in large numbers in those portions of the desert where vegetation is at all plentiful.

LITERATURE ON THE OASIS OF KHARGA

Poncet, M.
1709. “A Voyage to Æthiopia, made in the Years 1698, 1699, and 1700.” (Translated from the French.) Printed for W. Lewis at the Dolphin, next Tom’s Coffee House, in Russel Street, Covent Garden, London, 1709.
Browne, W. G.
1806. “Travels in Africa, Egypt, and Syria, from the Year 1792 to 1798.” Longman, Hurst, Rees, and Orme, London, 1806.
Cailliaud, F.
1822. “Travels in the Oasis of Thebes, and in the Deserts situated East and West of the Thebaid, in the Years 1815, 1816, 1817, and 1818.” (Translated from the French, and published in New Voyages and Travels, vol. vii.) Sir Richard Phillips and Co., London, 1822.
Drovetti, M. the Chevalier.
1822. “Itinerary of an Excursion to the Valley of Dakel,” by M. the Chevalier Drovetti, French Consul-General in Egypt, about the latter end of 1818, with a previous Itinerary from Syout to Dongolah and Darfour. In New Voyages and Travels, vol. vii. Sir Richard Phillips and Co., London, 1822.
Edmonstone, Sir Archibald, Bart.
1822. “A Journey to Two of the Oases of Upper Egypt.” John Murray, London, 1822.
Cailliaud, F.
1826. “Voyage a Méroé, au Fleuve Blanc, au delà de Fâzogl dans le Midi du Royaume de Sennâr, a Syouah et dans cinq autres Oasis; fait dans les années 1819, 1820, 1821, et 1822.” L’imprimerie Royale, Paris, 1826.
Wilkinson, I. G.
1835. “Topography of Thebes and General View of Egypt.” John Murray, London, 1835.
Hoskins, G. A.
1837. “Visit to the Great Oasis of the Libyan Desert.” Longman, Rees, Orme and Co., London, 1837.
Schweinfurth, Dr. G.
1875. “Notizen zur Kenntniss der Oase El-Chargeh” (I. Alterthümer). Petermann’s Mittheilungen, 21 Band, 1875. Justus Perthes, Gotha, 1875.
Rohlfs, Gerhard.
1875. “Drei Monate in der Libyschen Wüste.” Mit Beiträgen von P. Ascherson, W. Jordan, und K. Zittel. Theodor Fischer, Cassel, 1875.
Jordan, Dr. W.
1876. “Physische Geographie und Meteorologie der Libyschen Wüste.” Rohlfs’schen Expedition. Theodor Fischer, Cassel, 1876.
Brugsch, Dr. Heinrich.
1878. “Reise nach dem grossen Oase el Khargeh in der Libyschen Wüste.”
“A History of Egypt under the Pharaohs.” John Murray, London, 1881.
Zittel, K. von.
1883. “Beiträge zur Geologie und Palæontologie der Libyschen Wüste.” Rohlfs’schen Expedition. Theodor Fischer, Cassel, 1883.
Lyons, Captain H. G.
1894. “Notes sur le Géographie Physique des Oasis de Khargueh et de Dakhel.” Bull. Soc. Khéd. de Géogr., iv. série, No. 4, 1894.
“On the Stratigraphy and Physiography of the Libyan Desert of Egypt.” Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, vol. 1., London, 1894.
Barron, Beadnell, Lucas, and Hume, Messrs.
1900. “The Phosphate Deposits of Egypt.” Survey Department, Cairo, 1900 and 1905.
Ball, Dr. John.
1900. “Kharga Oasis: its Topography and Geology.” Survey Department, Cairo, 1900.
Guest, A R.
1900. “The Oases of the Mudirieh of Assyut.” The Geographical Journal, vol. xvi., London, 1900.
Beadnell, H. J. Llewellyn.
1904. “The Oases and the Geology of Egypt,” in “The Nile in 1904,” by Sir William Willcocks. E. and F. N. Spon, London, 1904.
Sayce, Professor A. H.
1905. “History of the Egyptian Oases.” The Egyptian Gazette, April 6, 1905.
Beadnell, H. J. Llewellyn.
1908. “Flowing Wells and Sub-Surface Water in Kharga Oasis.” Geological Magazine, N.S., Decade V., vol. v., February—March, 1908.
Lyons, Captain H. G.
1908. “Some Unsolved Problems of the Nile Basin.” The Cairo Scientific Journal, vol. ii., No. 18, March, 1908.
Hume, Dr. W. F.
1908. “The South-Western Desert of Egypt.” The Cairo Scientific Journal, vol. ii., Nos. 23 and 24, August—September, 1908.
Beadnell, H. J. Llewellyn.
1909. “The Mutual Interference of Artesian Wells.” Geological Magazine, N.S., Decade V., vol. vi., January, 1909.
“The Relations of the Nubian Sandstone and the Crystalline Rocks south of the Oasis of Kharga.” Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, vol. lxv., London, 1909.

INDEX