(3) Connecting sentences: "Unanimity in this case can mean only a very large majority. But even unanimity itself is far from indicating the voice of God."
(4) Connecting sentence groups: Paragraphs would be too long to quote here, but the student will readily find them, in which the writer connects the divisions of narration or argument by such words as but, however, hence, nor, then, therefore, etc.
295. A conjunction is a linking word, connecting words, word groups, sentences, or sentence groups.
296. Conjunctions have two principal divisions:—
(1) Coördinate, joining words, word groups, etc., of the same rank.
(2) Subordinate, joining a subordinate or dependent clause to a principal or independent clause.
COÖRDINATE CONJUNCTIONS.
297. Coördinate conjunctions are of four kinds:
(1) COPULATIVE, coupling or uniting words and expressions in the same line of thought; as and, also, as well as, moreover, etc.
(2) ADVERSATIVE, connecting words and expressions that are opposite in thought; as but, yet, still, however, while, only, etc.
(3) CAUSAL, introducing a reason or cause. The chief ones are, for, therefore, hence, then.
(4) ALTERNATIVE, expressing a choice, usually between two things. They are or, either, else, nor, neither, whether.
298. Some of these go in pairs, answering to each other in the same sentence; as, both...and; not only...but (or but also); either...or; whether...or; neither...nor; whether...or whether.
Some go in threes; as, not only...but... and; either...or...or; neither...nor... nor.
Further examples of the use of coördinate conjunctions:—
Your letter, likewise, had its weight; the bread was spent, the butter too; the window being open, as well as the room door.
The assertion, however, serves but to show their ignorance. "Can this be so?" said Goodman Brown. "Howbeit, I have nothing to do with the governor and council."
Nevertheless, in this mansion of gloom I now proposed to myself a sojourn of some weeks.
While the earth bears a plant, or the sea rolls its waves.
A thousand streamers flaunted fair.
Therefore the poet is not any permissive potentate, but is emperor in his own right. For it is the rule of the universe that corn shall serve man, and not man corn.
Examples of the use of correlatives:—
He began to doubt whether both he and the world around him were not bewitched.—Irving.
He is not only bold and vociferous, but possesses a considerable talent for mimicry, and seems to enjoy great satisfaction in mocking and teasing other birds.—Wilson.
It is...the same whether I move my hand along the surface of a body, or whether such a body is moved along my hand.—Burke.
Neither the place in which he found himself, nor the exclusive attention that he attracted, disturbed the self-possession of the young Mohican.—Cooper.
Neither was there any phantom memorial of life, nor wing of bird, nor echo, nor green leaf, nor creeping thing, that moved or stirred upon the soundless waste.—De Quincey.
SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS.
299. Subordinate conjunctions are of the following kinds:—
(1) PLACE: where, wherever, whither, whereto, whithersoever, whence, etc.
(2) TIME: when, before, after, since, as, until, whenever, while, ere, etc.
(3) MANNER: how, as, however, howsoever.
(4) CAUSE or REASON: because, since, as, now, whereas, that, seeing, etc.
(5) COMPARISON: than and as.
(6) PURPOSE: that, so, so that, in order that, lest, so...as.
(7) RESULT: that, so that, especially that after so.
(8) CONDITION or CONCESSION: if, unless, so, except, though, although; even if, provided, provided that, in case, on condition that, etc.
(9) SUBSTANTIVE: that, whether, sometimes if, are used frequently to introduce noun clauses used as subject, object, in apposition, etc.
Examples of the use of subordinate conjunctions:—
Where the treasure is, there will the heart be also.—Bible.
To lead from eighteen to twenty millions of men whithersoever they will.—J. Quincy.
An artist will delight in excellence wherever he meets it. —Allston.
I promise to devote myself to your happiness whenever you shall ask it of me.—Paulding.
It is sixteen years since I saw the Queen of France.—Burke.
Let the world go how it will.—Carlyle
Events proceed, not as they were expected or intended, but as they are impelled by the irresistible laws.—Ames.
I see no reason why I should not have the same thought.—Emerson.
That he gave her wounds repose.
—Campbell.
Late harvests of the palms he should have had in life.
—H. H. Jackson.
Sparing neither whip nor spur, seeing that he carried the vindication of his patron's fame in his saddlebags.—Irving.
As a soldier, he was more solicitous to avoid mistakes than to perform exploits that are brilliant.—Ames.
All the subsequent experience of our race had gone over him with as little permanent effect as [as follows the semi-adverbs as and so in expressing comparison] the passing breeze.—Hawthorne.
We wish for a thousand heads, a thousand bodies, that we might celebrate its immense beauty.—Emerson.
That vain it were her eyes to close.
—Coleridge.
I was again covered with water, but not so long but I held it out.—Defoe.
A ridicule which is of no import unless the scholar heed it.—Emerson.
So I behold them not.
—Byron.
Be now forever taken from my sight.
—Wordsworth.
It seems a pity that we can only spend it once.—Emerson.
We do not believe that he left any worthy man his foe who had ever been his friend.—Ames.
Let us see whether the greatest, the wisest, the purest-hearted of all ages are agreed in any wise on this point.—Ruskin.
Who can tell if Washington be a great man or no?—Emerson.
300. As will have been noticed, some words—for example, since, while, as, that, etc.—may belong to several classes of conjunctions, according to their meaning and connection in the sentence.
Exercises.
(a) Bring up sentences containing five examples of coördinate conjunctions.
(b) Bring up sentences containing three examples of correlatives.
(c) Bring up sentences containing ten subordinate conjunctions.
(d) Tell whether the italicized words in the following sentences are conjunctions or adverbs; classify them if conjunctions:—
1. Yet these were often exhibited throughout our city.
2. No one had yet caught his character.
3. After he was gone, the lady called her servant.
4. And they lived happily forever after.
5. They, however, hold a subordinate rank.
6. However ambitious a woman may be to command admiration abroad, her real merit is known at home.
7. Whence else could arise the bruises which I had received?
8. He was brought up for the church, whence he was occasionally called the Dominie.
9. And then recovering, she faintly pressed her hand.
10. In what point of view, then, is war not to be regarded with horror?
11. The moth fly, as he shot in air, Crept under the leaf, and hid her there.
12. Besides, as the rulers of a nation are as liable as other people to be governed by passion and prejudice, there is little prospect of justice in permitting war.
13. While a faction is a minority, it will remain harmless.
14. While patriotism glowed in his heart, wisdom blended in his speech her authority with her charms.
15. Hence it is highly important that the custom of war should be abolished.
16. The raft and the money had been thrown near her, none of the lashings having given way; only what is the use of a guinea amongst tangle and sea gulls?
17. Only let his thoughts be of equal scope, and the frame will suit the picture.
SPECIAL REMARKS.
301. As if is often used as one conjunction of manner, but really there is an ellipsis between the two words; thus,—
Sounds sweet as if a sister's voice reproved.
—Byron.
If analyzed, the expression would be, "sounds sweet as [the sound would be] if a sister's voice reproved;" as, in this case, expressing degree if taken separately.
But the ellipsis seems to be lost sight of frequently in writing, as is shown by the use of as though.
302. In Emerson's sentence, "We meet, and part as though we parted not," it cannot be said that there is an ellipsis: it cannot mean "we part as [we should part] though" etc.
Consequently, as if and as though may be taken as double conjunctions expressing manner. As though seems to be in as wide use as the conjunction as if; for example,—
Do you know a farmer who acts and lives as though he believed one word of this?—H. Greeley.
His voice ... sounded as though it came out of a barrel.—Irving.
As though a rose should shut, and be a bud again.
—Keats
Examples might be quoted from almost all authors.
303. In poetry, as is often equivalent to as if.
Clouded, even as they would weep.
—Emily Bronte.
So slowly moved about,
As we had lent her half our powers
To eke her living out.
—Hood.
HOW TO PARSE CONJUNCTIONS.
304. In parsing conjunctions, tell—
(1) To what class and subclass they belong.
(2) What words, word groups, etc., they connect.
In classifying them, particular attention must be paid to the meaning of the word. Some conjunctions, such as nor, and, because, when, etc., are regularly of one particular class; others belong to several classes. For example, compare the sentences,—
1. It continued raining, so that I could not stir abroad.—Defoe
2. There will be an agreement in whatever variety of actions, so they be each honest and natural in their hour.—Emerson
3. It was too dark to put an arrow into the creature's eye; so they paddled on.—Kingsley
In sentence 1, so that expresses result, and its clause depends on the other, hence it is a subordinate conjunction of result; in 2, so means provided,—is subordinate of condition; in 3, so means therefore, and its clause is independent, hence it is a coördinate conjunction of reason.
Exercise.
Parse all the conjunctions in these sentences:—
1. When the gods come among men, they are not known.
2. If he could solve the riddle, the Sphinx was slain.
3. A lady with whom I was riding in the forest said to me that the woods always seemed to wait, as if the genii who inhabit them suspended their deeds until the wayfarer had passed.
4. The mountain of granite blooms into an eternal flower, with the lightness and delicate finish as well as the aërial proportions and perspective of vegetable scenery.
5. At sea, or in the forest, or in the snow, he sleeps as warm, dines with as good an appetite, and associates as happily, as beside his own chimneys.
6. Our admiration of the antique is not admiration of the old, but of the natural.
7. "Doctor," said his wife to Martin Luther, "how is it that whilst subject to papacy we prayed so often and with such fervor, whilst now we pray with the utmost coldness, and very seldom?"
8. All the postulates of elfin annals,—that the fairies do not like to be named; that their gifts are capricious and not to be trusted; and the like,—I find them true in Concord, however they might be in Cornwall or Bretagne.
9. He is the compend of time; he is also the correlative of nature.
10. He dismisses without notice his thought, because it is his.
11. The eye was placed where one ray should fall, that it might testify of that particular ray.
12. It may be safely trusted, so it be faithfully imparted.
13. He knows how to speak to his contemporaries.
14. Goodness must have some edge to it,—else it is none.
15. I hope it is somewhat better than whim at last.
16. Now you have the whip in your hand, won't you lay on?
17. I scowl as I dip my pen into the inkstand.
18. I speak, therefore, of good novels only.
19. Let her loose in the library as you do a fawn in a field.
20. And whether consciously or not, you must be, in many a heart, enthroned.
21. It is clear, however, the whole conditions are changed.
22. I never rested until I had a copy of the book.
23. For, though there may be little resemblance otherwise, in this they agree, that both were wayward.
24. Still, she might have the family countenance; and Kate thought he looked with a suspicious scrutiny into her face as he inquired for the young don.
25. He follows his genius whithersoever it may lead him.
26. The manuscript indeed speaks of many more, whose names I omit, seeing that it behooves me to hasten.
27. God had marked this woman's sin with a scarlet letter, which had such efficacy that no human sympathy could reach her, save it were sinful like herself.
28. I rejoice to stand here no longer, to be looked at as though I had seven heads and ten horns.
29. He should neither praise nor blame nor defend his equals.
30. There was no iron to be seen, nor did they appear acquainted with its properties; for they unguardedly took a drawn sword by the edge, when it was presented to them.
PREPOSITIONS..
305. The word preposition implies place before: hence it would seem that a preposition is always before its object. It may be so in the majority of cases, but in a considerable proportion of instances the preposition is after its object.
This occurs in such cases as the following:—
(1) After a relative pronoun, a very common occurrence; thus,—
The most dismal Christmas fun which these eyes ever looked on.—Thackeray.
An ancient nation which they know nothing of.—Emerson.
A foe, whom a champion has fought with to-day.—Scott.
Some little toys that girls are fond of.—Swift.
"It's the man that I spoke to you about" said Mr. Pickwick.—Dickens.
(2) After an interrogative adverb, adjective, or pronoun, also frequently found:—
What God doth the wizard pray to?—Hawthorne.
What is the little one thinking about?—J. G. Holland.
Where the Devil did it come from, I wonder?—Dickens.
(3) With an infinitive, in such expressions as these:—
A proper quarrel for a Crusader to do battle in.—Scott.
"You know, General, it was nothing to joke about."—Cable
Had no harsh treatment to reproach herself with.—Boyesen
A loss of vitality scarcely to be accounted for.—Holmes.
Places for horses to be hitched to.—Id.
(4) After a noun,—the case in which the preposition is expected to be, and regularly is, before its object; as,—
Comes bubbling up, the weeds among.
—Beddoes.
All breathing human passion far above.
—Keats.
306. Since the object of a preposition is most often a noun, the statement is made that the preposition usually precedes its object; as in the following sentence, "Roused by the shock, he started from his trance."
Here the words by and from are connectives; but they do more than connect. By shows the relation in thought between roused and shock, expressing means or agency; from shows the relation in thought between started and trance, and expresses separation. Both introduce phrases.
307. A preposition is a word joined to a noun or its equivalent to make up a qualifying or an adverbial phrase, and to show the relation between its object and the word modified.
308. Besides nouns, prepositions may have as objects—
(1) Pronouns: "Upon them with the lance;" "With whom I traverse earth."
(2) Adjectives: "On high the winds lift up their voices."
(3) Adverbs: "If I live wholly from within;" "Had it not been for the sea from aft."
(4) Phrases: "Everything came to her from on high;" "From of old they had been zealous worshipers."
(5) Infinitives: "The queen now scarce spoke to him save to convey some necessary command for her service."
(6) Gerunds: "They shrink from inflicting what they threaten;" "He is not content with shining on great occasions."
(7) Clauses:
To where thy sky-born glories burn."
309. The object of a preposition, if a noun or pronoun, is usually in the objective case. In pronouns, this is shown by the form of the word, as in Sec. 308 (1).
In the double-possessive idiom, however, the object is in the possessive case after of; for example,—
There was also a book of Defoe's,... and another of Mather's.—Franklin.
See also numerous examples in Secs. 68 and 87.
And the prepositions but and save are found with the nominative form of the pronoun following; as,—
Where our nest and our nestlings lie.
—BRYANT.
USES OF PREPOSITIONS.
310. Prepositions are used in three ways:—
(1) Compounded with verbs, adverbs, or conjunctions; as, for example, with verbs, withdraw, understand, overlook, overtake, overflow, undergo, outstay, outnumber, overrun, overgrow, etc.; with adverbs, thereat, therein, therefrom, thereby, therewith, etc.; with conjunctions, whereat, wherein, whereon, wherethrough, whereupon, etc.
(2) Following a verb, and being really a part of the verb. This use needs to be watched closely, to see whether the preposition belongs to the verb or has a separate prepositional function. For example, in the sentences, (a) "He broke a pane from the window," (b) "He broke into the bank," in (a), the verb broke is a predicate, modified by the phrase introduced by from; in (b), the predicate is not broke, modified by into the bank, but broke into—the object, bank.
Study carefully the following prepositions with verbs:—
Considering the space they took up.—Swift.
I loved, laughed at, and pitied him.—Goldsmith.
The sun breaks through the darkest clouds.—Shakespeare.
They will root up the whole ground.—Swift.
A friend prevailed upon one of the interpreters.—Addison
My uncle approved of it.—Franklin.
The robber who broke into them.—Landor.
This period is not obscurely hinted at.—Lamb.
The judge winked at the iniquity of the decision.—Id.
The pupils' voices, conning over their lessons.—Irving.
To help out his maintenance.—Id.
With such pomp is Merry Christmas ushered in.—Longfellow.
(3) As relation words, introducing phrases,—the most common use, in which the words have their own proper function.
311. Prepositions are the subtlest and most useful words in the language for compressing a clear meaning into few words. Each preposition has its proper and general meaning, which, by frequent and exacting use, has expanded and divided into a variety of meanings more or less close to the original one.
Take, for example, the word over. It expresses place, with motion, as, "The bird flew over the house;" or rest, as, "Silence broods over the earth." It may also convey the meaning of about, concerning; as, "They quarreled over the booty." Or it may express time: "Stay over night."
The language is made richer and more flexible by there being several meanings to each of many prepositions, as well as by some of them having the same meaning as others.
CLASSES OF PREPOSITIONS.
312. It would be useless to attempt to classify all the prepositions, since they are so various in meaning.
The largest groups are those of place, time, and exclusion.
PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE.
313. The following are the most common to indicate place:—
(1) PLACE WHERE: abaft, about, above, across, amid (amidst), among (amongst), at, athwart, below, beneath, beside, between (betwixt), beyond, in, on, over, under (underneath), upon, round or around, without.
(2) PLACE WHITHER: into, unto, up, through, throughout, to, towards.
(3) PLACE WHENCE: down, from (away from, down from, from out, etc.), off, out of.
Abaft is exclusively a sea term, meaning back of.
Among (or amongst) and between (or betwixt) have a difference in meaning, and usually a difference in use. Among originally meant in the crowd (on gemong), referring to several objects; between and betwixt were originally made up of the preposition be (meaning by) and twēon or twēonum (modern twain), by two, and be with twīh (or twuh), having the same meaning, by two objects.
As to modern use, see "Syntax" (Sec. 459).
PREPOSITIONS OF TIME.
314. They are after, during, pending, till or until; also many of the prepositions of place express time when put before words indicating time, such as at, between, by, about, on, within, etc.
These are all familiar, and need no special remark.
EXCLUSION OR SEPARATION.
315. The chief ones are besides, but, except, save, without. The participle excepting is also used as a preposition.
MISCELLANEOUS PREPOSITIONS.
316. Against implies opposition, sometimes place where. In colloquial English it is sometimes used to express time, now and then also in literary English; for example,—
She contrived to fit up the baby's cradle for me against night.—Swift
About, and the participial prepositions concerning, respecting, regarding, mean with reference to.
317. Many phrases are used as single prepositions: by means of, by virtue of, by help of, by dint of, by force of; out of, on account of, by way of, for the sake of; in consideration of, in spite of, in defiance of, instead of, in view of, in place of; with respect to, with regard to, according to, agreeably to; and some others.
318. Besides all these, there are some prepositions that have so many meanings that they require separate and careful treatment: on (upon), at, by, for, from, of, to, with.
No attempt will be made to give all the meanings that each one in this list has: the purpose is to stimulate observation, and to show how useful prepositions really are.
At.
319. The general meaning of at is near, close to, after a verb or expression implying position; and towards after a verb or expression indicating motion. It defines position approximately, while in is exact, meaning within.
Its principal uses are as follows:—
(1) Place where.
There had been a strike at the neighboring manufacturing village, and there was to be a public meeting, at which he was besought to be present.—T. W. Higginson.
(2) Time, more exact, meaning the point of time at which.
He wished to attack at daybreak.—Parkman.
They buried him darkly, at dead of night.—Wolfe
(3) Direction.
The mother stood looking wildly down at the unseemly object.—Cooper.
You are next invited...to grasp at the opportunity, and take for your subject, "Health."—Higginson.
Here belong such expressions as laugh at, look at, wink at, gaze at, stare at, peep at, scowl at, sneer at, frown at, etc.
We laugh at the elixir that promises to prolong life to a thousand years.—Johnson.
"You never mean to say," pursued Dot, sitting on the floor and shaking her head at him.—Dickens.
(4) Source or cause, meaning because of, by reason of.
I felt my heart chill at the dismal sound.—T. W. Knox.
Delighted at this outburst against the Spaniards.—Parkman.
(5) Then the idiomatic phrases at last, at length, at any rate, at the best, at the worst, at least, at most, at first, at once, at all, at one, at naught, at random, etc.; and phrases signifying state or condition of being, as, at work, at play, at peace, at war, at rest, etc.
Exercise.—Find sentences with three different uses of at.
By.
320. Like at, by means near or close to, but has several other meanings more or less connected with this,—
(1) The general meaning of place.
Richard was standing by the window.—Aldrich.
Provided always the coach had not shed a wheel by the roadside.—Id.
(2) Time.
But by this time the bell of Old Alloway began tolling.—B. Taylor
The angel came by night.—R. H. Stoddard.
(3) Agency or means.
Menippus knew which were the kings by their howling louder.—M. D. Conway.
At St. Helena, the first port made by the ship, he stopped. —Parton.
(4) Measure of excess, expressing the degree of difference.
At that time [the earth] was richer, by many a million of acres.—De Quincey.
He was taller by almost the breadth of my nail.—Swift.
(5) It is also used in oaths and adjurations.
By my faith, that is a very plump hand for a man of eighty-four!—Parton.
They implore us by the long trials of struggling humanity; by the blessed memory of the departed; by the wrecks of time; by the ruins of nations.—Everett.
Exercise.—Find sentences with three different meanings of by.
For.
321. The chief meanings of for are as follows:—
(1) Motion towards a place, or a tendency or action toward the attainment of any object.
Pioneers who were opening the way for the march of the nation.—Cooper.
She saw the boat headed for her.—Warner.
(2) In favor of, for the benefit of, in behalf of, a person or thing.
He and they were for immediate attack.—Parkman
The people were then against us; they are now for us.—W. L. Garrison.
(3) Duration of time, or extent of space.
For a long time the disreputable element outshone the virtuous.—H. H. Bancroft.
He could overlook all the country for many a mile of rich woodland.—Irving.
(4) Substitution or exchange.
There are gains for all our losses.—Stoddard.
Thus did the Spaniards make bloody atonement for the butchery of Fort Caroline.—Parkman.
(5) Reference, meaning with regard to, as to, respecting, etc.
For the rest, the Colonna motto would fit you best.—Emerson.
For him, poor fellow, he repented of his folly.—E. E. Hale
This is very common with as—as for me, etc.
(6) Like as, meaning in the character of, as being, etc.
"Nay, if your worship can accomplish that," answered Master Brackett, "I shall own you for a man of skill indeed!" —Hawthorne.
Wavering whether he should put his son to death for an unnatural monster.—Lamb.
(7) Concession, meaning although, considering that etc.
"For a fool," said the Lady of Lochleven, "thou hast counseled wisely."—Scott
By my faith, that is a very plump hand for a man of eighty-four!—Parton.
(8) Meaning notwithstanding, or in spite of.
But the Colonel, for all his title, had a forest of poor relations.—Holmes.
One of Eve's family.
—Hood.
(9) Motive, cause, reason, incitement to action.
The twilight being...hardly more wholesome for its glittering mists of midge companies.—Ruskin.
An Arab woman, but a few sunsets since, ate her child, for famine.—Id.
Here Satouriona forgot his dignity, and leaped for joy.—Parkman.
(10) For with its object preceding the infinitive, and having the same meaning as a noun clause, as shown by this sentence:—
It is by no means necessary that he should devote his whole school existence to physical science; nay, more, it is not necessary for him to give up more than a moderate share of his time to such studies.—Huxley.
Exercise.—Find sentences with five meanings of for.
From.
322. The general idea in from is separation or source. It may be with regard to—
(1) Place.
Like boys escaped from school.—H. H. Bancroft
Thus they drifted from snow-clad ranges to burning plain.—Id.