132. Adjective pronouns are divided into three classes:—
(1) DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, such as this, that, the former, etc.
(2) DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS, such as each, either, neither, etc.
(3) NUMERAL PRONOUNS, as some, any, few, many, none, all, etc.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
133. A DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN is one that definitely points out what persons or things are alluded to in the sentence.
The person or thing alluded to by the demonstrative may be in another sentence, or may be the whole of a sentence. For example, "Be that as it may" could refer to a sentiment in a sentence, or an argument in a paragraph; but the demonstrative clearly points to that thing.
The following are examples of demonstratives:—
I did not say this in so many words.
All these he saw; but what he fain had seen He could not see.
Beyond that I seek not to penetrate the veil.
How much we forgive in those who yield us the rare spectacle of heroic manners!
The correspondence of Bonaparte with his brother Joseph, when the latter was the King of Spain.
Such are a few isolated instances, accidentally preserved.
Even as I have seen, they that plow iniquity, and sow wickedness, reap the same.
They know that patriotism has its glorious opportunities and its sacred duties. They have not shunned the one, and they have well performed the other.
NOTE.—It will be noticed in the first four sentences that this and that are inflected for number.
Exercises.
(a) Find six sentences using demonstrative adjective pronouns.
(b) In which of the following is these a pronoun?—
1. Formerly the duty of a librarian was to keep people as much as possible from the books, and to hand these over to his successor as little worn as he could.—Lowell.
2. They had fewer books, but these were of the best.—Id.
3. A man inspires affection and honor, because he was not lying in wait for these.—Emerson
4. Souls such as these treat you as gods would.—Id.
5. These are the first mountains that broke the uniform level of the earth's surface.—Agassiz
DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS.
134. The DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS are those which stand for the names of persons or things considered singly.
Some of these are simple pronouns; for example,—
They stood, or sat, or reclined, as seemed good to each.
As two yoke devils sworn to other's purpose.
Their minds accorded into one strain, and made delightful music which neither could have claimed as all his own.
Two are compound pronouns,—each other, one another. They may be separated into two adjective pronouns; as,
We violated our reverence each for the other's soul. —Hawthorne.
More frequently they are considered as one pronoun.
They led one another, as it were, into a high pavilion of their thoughts.—Hawthorne.
Men take each other's measure when they react.—Emerson.
Exercise.—Find sentences containing three distributive pronouns.
NUMERAL PRONOUNS.
135. The NUMERAL PRONOUNS are those which stand for an uncertain number or quantity of persons or things.
The following sentences contain numeral pronouns:—
Trusting too much to others' care is the ruin of many.
'Tis of no importance how large his house, you quickly come to the end of all.
Another opposes him with sound argument.
It is as if one should be so enthusiastic a lover of poetry as to care nothing for Homer or Milton.
There were plenty more for him to fall in company with, as some of the rangers had gone astray.
The Soldan, imbued, as most were, with the superstitions of his time, paused over a horoscope.
If those [taxes] were the only ones we had to pay, we might the more easily discharge them.
Much might be said on both sides.
It felt the guidance that it does not claim.
So perish all whose breast ne'er learned to glow
For others' good, or melt for others' woe.
None shall rule but the humble.
It will be noticed that some of these are inflected for case and number; such as one other, another.
The word one has a reflexive form; for example,—
The best way to punish oneself for doing ill seems to me to go and do good.—Kingsley.
The lines sound so prettily to one's self.—Holmes.
Exercise.—Find sentences containing ten numeral pronouns.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
136. Indefinite pronouns are words which stand for an indefinite number or quantity of persons or things; but, unlike adjective pronouns, they are never used as adjectives.
Most of them are compounds of two or more words:—
Somebody, some one, something; anybody, any one (or anyone), anything; everybody, every one (or everyone), everything; nobody, no one, nothing; somebody else, anyone else, everybody else, every one else, etc.; also aught, naught; and somewhat, what, and they.
The following sentences contain indefinite pronouns:—
As he had them of all hues, he hoped to fit everybody's fancy.
Every one knows how laborious the usual method is of attaining to arts and sciences.
Nothing sheds more honor on our early history than the impression which these measures everywhere produced in America.
Let us also perform something worthy to be remembered.
William of Orange was more than anything else a religious man.
Frederick was discerned to be a purchaser of everything that nobody else would buy.
These other souls draw me as nothing else can.
The genius that created it now creates somewhat else.
Every one else stood still at his post.
That is perfectly true: I did not want anybody else's authority to write as I did.
They indefinite means people in general; as,—
At lovers' perjuries, they say, Jove laughs.—Shakespeare.
What indefinite is used in the expression "I tell you what." It means something, and was indefinite in Old English.
There is always somewhere a weakest spot.
Exercise.—Find sentences with six indefinite pronouns.
137. Some indefinite pronouns are inflected for case, as shown in the words everybody's, anybody else's, etc.
See also "Syntax" (Sec. 426) as to the possessive case of the forms with else.
HOW TO PARSE PRONOUNS.
138. In parsing pronouns the student will need particularly to guard against the mistake of parsing words according to form instead of according to function or use.
Exercise.
Parse in full the pronouns in the following sentences:—
1. She could not help laughing at the vile English into which they were translated.
2. Our readers probably remember what Mrs. Hutchinson tells us of herself.
3. Whoever deals with M. de Witt must go the plain way that he pretends to, in his negotiations.
4. Some of them from whom nothing was to be got, were suffered to depart; but those from whom it was thought that anything could be extorted were treated with execrable cruelty.
5. All was now ready for action.
6. Scarcely had the mutiny broken up when he was himself again.
7. He came back determined to put everything to the hazard.
8. Nothing is more clear than that a general ought to be the servant of his government, and of no other.
9. Others did the same thing, but not to quite so enormous an extent.
10. On reaching the approach to this about sunset of a beautiful evening in June, I first found myself among the mountains,—a feature of natural scenery for which, from my earliest days, it was not extravagant to say that I hungered and thirsted.
11. I speak of that part which chiefly it is that I know.
12. A smaller sum I had given to my friend the attorney (who was connected with the money lenders as their lawyer), to which, indeed, he was entitled for his unfurnished lodgings.
13. Whatever power the law gave them would be enforced against me to the utmost.
14. O thou that rollest above, round as the shield of my fathers!
15. But there are more than you ever heard of who die of grief in this island of ours.
16. But amongst themselves is no voice nor sound.
17. For this did God send her a great reward.
18. The table was good; but that was exactly what Kate cared little about.
19. Who and what was Milton? That is to say, what is the place which he fills in his own vernacular literature?
20. These hopes are mine as much as theirs.
21. What else am I who laughed or wept yesterday, who slept last night like a corpse?
22. I who alone am, I who see nothing in nature whose existence I can affirm with equal evidence to my own, behold now the semblance of my being, in all its height, variety, and curiosity reiterated in a foreign form.
23.
For thee who art so beautiful?
24.
And it would work 'em woe.
25. Whatever he knows and thinks, whatever in his apprehension is worth doing, that let him communicate.
26. Rip Van Winkle was one of those foolish, well-oiled dispositions, who take the world easy, eat white bread or brown, whichever can be got with least thought or trouble.
27.
Who am a maiden most forlorn?
28.
Who knew thee too well.
29.
By the old Hall which may be mine no more.
30.
Words which I could not guess of.
31.
Such as creation's dawn beheld, thou rollest now.
32.
Destroyer and preserver; hear, oh, hear!
33. A smile of hers was like an act of grace.
34. No man can learn what he has not preparation for learning.
35. What can we see or acquire but what we are?
36. He teaches who gives, and he learns who receives.
37. We are by nature observers; that is our permanent state.
38. He knew not what to do, and so he read.
39. Who hears me, who understands me, becomes mine.
40. The men who carry their points do not need to inquire of their constituents what they should say.
41. Higher natures overpower lower ones by affecting them with a certain sleep.
42. Those who live to the future must always appear selfish to those who live to the present.
43. I am sorry when my independence is invaded or when a gift comes from such as do not know my spirit.
44. Here I began to howl and scream abominably, which was no bad step towards my liberation.
45. The only aim of the war is to see which is the stronger of the two—which is the master.
ADJECTIVES.
139. Nouns are seldom used as names of objects without additional words joined to them to add to their meaning. For example, if we wish to speak of a friend's house, we cannot guide one to it by merely calling it a house. We need to add some words to tell its color, size, position, etc., if we are at a distance; and if we are near, we need some word to point out the house we speak of, so that no other will be mistaken for it. So with any object, or with persons.
As to the kind of words used, we may begin with the common adjectives telling the characteristics of an object. If a chemist discovers a new substance, he cannot describe it to others without telling its qualities: he will say it is solid, or liquid, or gaseous; heavy or light; brittle or tough; white or red; etc.
Again, in pointing out an object, adjectives are used; such as in the expressions "this man," "that house," "yonder hill," etc.
Instead of using nouns indefinitely, the number is limited by adjectives; as, "one hat," "some cities," "a hundred men."
The office of an adjective, then, is to narrow down or limit the application of a noun. It may have this office alone, or it may at the same time add to the meaning of the noun.
140. Nouns are not, however, the only words limited by adjectives: pronouns and other words and expressions also have adjectives joined to them. Any word or word group that performs the same office as a noun may be modified by adjectives.
To make this clear, notice the following sentences:—
If he be thankful for small benefits, it shows that he weighs men's minds, and their trash.—Bacon.
To err is human; to forgive, divine.—Pope.
With exception of the "and then," the "and there," and the still less significant "and so," they constitute all his connections.—Coleridge.
141. An adjective is a word joined to a noun or other substantive word or expression, to describe it or to limit its application.
142. Adjectives are divided into four classes:—
(1) Descriptive adjectives, which describe by expressing qualities or attributes of a substantive.
(2) Adjectives of quantity, used to tell how many things are spoken of, or how much of a thing.
(3) Demonstrative adjectives, pointing out particular things.
(4) Pronominal adjectives, words primarily pronouns, but used adjectively sometimes in modifying nouns instead of standing for them. They include relative and interrogative words.
DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES.
143. This large class includes several kinds of words:—
(1) SIMPLE ADJECTIVES expressing quality; such as safe, happy, deep, fair, rash, beautiful, remotest, terrible, etc.
(2) COMPOUND ADJECTIVES, made up of various words thrown together to make descriptive epithets. Examples are, "Heaven-derived power," "this life-giving book," "his spirit wrapt and wonder-struck," "ice-cold water," "half-dead traveler," "unlooked-for burden," "next-door neighbor," "ivory-handled pistols," "the cold-shudder-inspiring Woman in White."
(3) PROPER ADJECTIVES, derived from proper nouns; such as, "an old English manuscript," "the Christian pearl of charity," "the well-curb had a Chinese roof," "the Roman writer Palladius."
(4) PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES, which are either pure participles used to describe, or participles which have lost all verbal force and have no function except to express quality. Examples are,—
Pure participial adjectives: "The healing power of the Messiah," "The shattering sway of one strong arm," "trailing clouds," "The shattered squares have opened into line," "It came on like the rolling simoom," "God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb."
Faded participial adjectives: "Sleep is a blessed thing;" "One is hungry, and another is drunken;" "under the fitting drapery of the jagged and trailing clouds;" "The clearness and quickness are amazing;" "an aged man;" "a charming sight."
144. Care is needed, in studying these last-named words, to distinguish between a participle that forms part of a verb, and a participle or participial adjective that belongs to a noun.
For instance: in the sentence, "The work was well and rapidly accomplished," was accomplished is a verb; in this, "No man of his day was more brilliant or more accomplished," was is the verb, and accomplished is an adjective.
Exercises.
1. Bring up sentences with twenty descriptive adjectives, having some of each subclass named in Sec. 143.
2. Is the italicized word an adjective in this?—
The old sources of intellectual excitement seem to be well-nigh exhausted.
ADJECTIVES OF QUANTITY.
145. Adjectives of quantity tell how much or how many. They have these three subdivisions:—
(1) QUANTITY IN BULK: such words as little, much, some, no, any, considerable, sometimes small, joined usually to singular nouns to express an indefinite measure of the thing spoken of.
The following examples are from Kingsley:—
Which we began to do with great labor and little profit.
Because I had some knowledge of surgery and blood-letting.
But ever she looked on Mr. Oxenham, and seemed to take no
care as long as he was by.
Examples of small an adjective of quantity:—
"The deil's in it but I bude to anger him!" said the woman, and walked away with a laugh of small satisfaction.—Macdonald.
'Tis midnight, but small thoughts have I of sleep.—Coleridge.
It gives small idea of Coleridge's way of talking.—Carlyle.
When some, any, no, are used with plural nouns, they come under the next division of adjectives.
(2) QUANTITY IN NUMBER, which may be expressed exactly by numbers or remotely designated by words expressing indefinite amounts. Hence the natural division into—
(a) Definite numerals; as, "one blaze of musketry;" "He found in the pathway fourteen Spaniards;" "I have lost one brother, but I have gained fourscore;" "a dozen volunteers."
(b) Indefinite numerals, as the following from Kingsley: "We gave several thousand pounds for it;" "In came some five and twenty more, and with them a few negroes;" "Then we wandered for many days;" "Amyas had evidently more schemes in his head;" "He had lived by hunting for some months;" "That light is far too red to be the reflection of any beams of hers."
(3) DISTRIBUTIVE NUMERALS, which occupy a place midway between the last two subdivisions of numeral adjectives; for they are indefinite in telling how many objects are spoken of, but definite in referring to the objects one at a time. Thus,—
Every town had its fair; every village, its wake.—Thackeray.
An arrow was quivering in each body.—Kingsley.
Few on either side but had their shrewd scratch to show.—Id.
My conscience with a sinful sound,
Or had the black art to dispense
A several sin to every sense.
—Vaughan.
Exercise.—Bring up sentences with ten adjectives of quantity.
DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES.
146. The words of this list are placed here instead of among pronominal adjectives, for the reason that they are felt to be primarily adjectives; their pronominal use being evidently a shortening, by which the words point out but stand for words omitted, instead of modifying them. Their natural and original use is to be joined to a noun following or in close connection.
The demonstrative adjectives are this, that, (plural these, those), yonder (or yon), former, latter; also the pairs one (or the one)—the other, the former—the latter, used to refer to two things which have been already named in a sentence.
The following sentences present some examples:—
The bashful virgin's sidelong looks of love, The matron's glance that would those looks reprove.—Goldsmith.
These were thy charms...but all these charms are fled.—Id.
About this time I met with an odd volume of the "Spectator."—B. Franklin.
Yonder proud ships are not means of annoyance to you.—D. Webster.
Yon cloud with that long purple cleft.—Wordsworth.
I chose for the students of Kensington two characteristic examples of early art, of equal skill; but in the one case, skill which was progressive—in the other, skill which was at pause.—Ruskin.
Exercise.—Find sentences with five demonstrative adjectives.
147. The class of numerals known as ordinals must be placed here, as having the same function as demonstrative adjectives. They point out which thing is meant among a series of things mentioned. The following are examples:—
The first regular provincial newspapers appear to have been created in the last decade of the seventeenth century, and by the middle of the eighteenth century almost every important provincial town had its local organ.—Bancroft.
These do not, like the other numerals, tell how many things are meant. When we speak of the seventeenth century, we imply nothing as to how many centuries there may be.
PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.
148. As has been said, pronominal adjectives are primarily pronouns; but, when they modify words instead of referring to them as antecedents, they are changed to adjectives. They are of two kinds,—RELATIVE and INTERROGATIVE,—and are used to join sentences or to ask questions, just as the corresponding pronouns do.
149. The RELATIVE ADJECTIVES are which and what; for example,—
It matters not what rank he has, what revenues or garnitures. —Carlyle.
The silver and laughing Xenil, careless what lord should possess the banks that bloomed by its everlasting course.—Bulwer.
The taking of which bark. I verily believe, was the ruin of every mother's son of us.—Kingsley.
In which evil strait Mr. Oxenham fought desperately.—Id.
150. The INDEFINITE RELATIVE adjectives are what, whatever, whatsoever, whichever, whichsoever. Examples of their use are,—
He in his turn tasted some of its flavor, which, make what sour mouths he would for pretense, proved not altogether displeasing to him.—Lamb.
Whatever correction of our popular views from insight, nature will be sure to bear us out in.—Emerson.
Whatsoever kind of man he is, you at least give him full authority over your son.—Ruskin.
Was there, as it rather seemed, a circle of ominous shadow moving along with his deformity, whichever way he turned himself?—Hawthorne.
151. The INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES are which and what. They may be used in direct and indirect questions. As in the pronouns, which is selective among what is known; what inquires about things or persons not known.
Sentences with which and what in direct questions:—
Which debt must I pay first, the debt to the rich, or the debt to the poor?—Emerson.
But when the Trojan war comes, which side will you take? —Thackeray.
But what books in the circulating library circulate?—Lowell.
Invites my steps, and points to yonder glade?
—Pope.
Sentences with which and what in indirect questions:—
His head...looked like a weathercock perched upon his spindle neck to tell which way the wind blew.—Irving.
A lady once remarked, he [Coleridge] could never fix which side of the garden walk would suit him best.—Carlyle.
He was turned before long into all the universe, where it was uncertain what game you would catch, or whether any.—Id.
At what rate these materials would be distributed and precipitated in regular strata, it is impossible to determine.—Agassiz.
152. In exclamatory expressions, what (or what a) has a force somewhat like a descriptive adjective. It is neither relative nor interrogative, but might be called an EXCLAMATORY ADJECTIVE; as,—
Oh, what a revolution! and what a heart must I have, to contemplate without emotion that elevation and that fall!—Burke.
What a piece of work is man!—Shakespeare.
And yet, alas, the making of it right, what a business for long time to come!—Carlyle
Through what hardships it may attain to bear a sweet fruit!—Thoreau.
Exercise.—Find ten sentences containing pronominal adjectives.
INFLECTIONS OF ADJECTIVES.
153 .Adjectives have two inflections,—number and comparison.
NUMBER.—This, That.
154. The only adjectives having a plural form are this and that (plural these, those).
This is the old demonstrative; that being borrowed from the forms of the definite article, which was fully inflected in Old English. The article that was used with neuter nouns.
In Middle English the plural of this was this or thise, which changed its spelling to the modern form these.
But this had also another plural, thās (modern those). The old plural of that was tha (Middle English tho or thow): consequently tho (plural of that) and those (plural of this) became confused, and it was forgotten that those was really the plural of this; and in Modern English we speak of these as the plural of this, and those as the plural of that.
COMPARISON.
155. Comparison is an inflection not possessed by nouns and pronouns: it belongs to adjectives and adverbs.
When we place two objects side by side, we notice some differences between them as to size, weight, color, etc. Thus, it is said that a cow is larger than a sheep, gold is heavier than iron, a sapphire is bluer than the sky. All these have certain qualities; and when we compare the objects, we do so by means of their qualities,—cow and sheep by the quality of largeness, or size; gold and iron by the quality of heaviness, or weight, etc.,—but not the same degree, or amount, of the quality.
The degrees belong to any beings or ideas that may be known or conceived of as possessing quality; as, "untamed thought, great, giant-like, enormous;" "the commonest speech;" "It is a nobler valor;" "the largest soul."
Also words of quantity may be compared: for example, "more matter, with less wit;" "no fewer than a hundred."
156. There are some descriptive words whose meaning is such as not to admit of comparison; for example,—
His company became very agreeable to the brave old professor of arms, whose favorite pupil he was.—Thackeray.
A main difference betwixt men is, whether they attend their own affair or not.—Emerson
It was his business to administer the law in its final and closest application to the offender—Hawthorne.
Freedom is a perpetual, organic, universal institution, in harmony with the Constitution of the United States.—Seward.
So with the words sole, sufficient, infinite, immemorial, indefatigable, indomitable, supreme, and many others.
It is true that words of comparison are sometimes prefixed to them, but, strictly considered, they are not compared.
157. Comparison means the changes that words undergo to express degrees in quality, or amounts in quantity.
158. There are two forms for this inflection: the comparative, expressing a greater degree of quality; and the superlative, expressing the greatest degree of quality.
These are called degrees of comparison.
These are properly the only degrees, though the simple, uninflected form is usually called the positive degree.
159. The comparative is formed by adding -er, and the superlative by adding -est, to the simple form; as, red, redder, reddest; blue, bluer, bluest; easy, easier, easiest.
160. Side by side with these inflected forms are found comparative and superlative expressions making use of the adverbs more and most. These are often useful as alternative with the inflected forms, but in most cases are used before adjectives that are never inflected.
They came into use about the thirteenth century, but were not common until a century later.
161. The English is somewhat capricious in choosing between the inflected forms and those with more and most, so that no inflexible rule can be given as to the formation of the comparative and the superlative.
The general rule is, that monosyllables and easily pronounced words of two syllables add -er and -est; and other words are preceded by more and most.
But room must be left in such a rule for pleasantness of sound and for variety of expression.
To see how literary English overrides any rule that could be given, examine the following taken at random:—
From Thackeray: "The handsomest wives;" "the immensest quantity of thrashing;" "the wonderfulest little shoes;" "more odd, strange, and yet familiar;" "more austere and holy."
From Ruskin: "The sharpest, finest chiseling, and patientest fusing;" "distantest relationships;" "sorrowfulest spectacles."
Carlyle uses beautifulest, mournfulest, honestest, admirablest, indisputablest, peaceablest, most small, etc.
These long, harsh forms are usually avoided, but more and most are frequently used with monosyllables.
162. Expressions are often met with in which a superlative form does not carry the superlative meaning. These are equivalent usually to very with the positive degree; as,—
To this the Count offers a most wordy declaration of the benefits conferred by Spain.—The Nation, No 1507
In all formulas that Johnson could stand by, there needed to be a most genuine substance.—Carlyle
A gentleman, who, though born in no very high degree, was most finished, polished, witty, easy, quiet.—Thackeray
He had actually nothing else save a rope around his neck, which hung behind in the queerest way.—Id.
"So help me God, madam, I will," said Henry Esmond, falling on his knees, and kissing the hand of his dearest mistress.—Id.
163. Among the variously derived adjectives now in our language there are some which may always be recognized as native English. These are adjectives irregularly compared.
Most of them have worn down or become confused with similar words, but they are essentially the same forms that have lived for so many centuries.
The following lists include the majority of them:—
| LIST I. | |||
| 1. | Good or well | Better | Best |
| 2. | Evil, bad, ill | Worse | Worst |
| 3. | Little | Less, lesser | Least |
| 4. | Much or many | More | Most |
| 5. | Old | Elder, older | Eldest, oldest |
| 6. | Nigh | Nigher | Nighest, next |
| 7. | Near | Nearer | Nearest |
| 8. | Far | Farther, further | Farthest, furthest |
| 9. | Late | Later, latter | Latest, last |
| 10. | Hind | Hinder | Hindmost, hindermost |
| LIST II. | |||
| These have no adjective positive:— | |||
| 1. | [In] | Inner | Inmost, innermost |
| 2. | [Out] | Outer, utter | Outmost, outermost Utmost, uttermost |
| 3. | [Up] | Upper | Upmost, uppermost |
| LIST III. | |||
| A few of comparative form but not comparative meaning:— | |||
| After | Over | Under | Nether |
Remarks on Irregular Adjectives.
164. (1) The word good has no comparative or superlative, but takes the place of a positive to better and best. There was an old comparative bet, which has gone out of use; as in the sentence (14th century), "Ich singe bet than thu dest" (I sing better than thou dost). The superlative I form was betst, which has softened to the modern best.
(2) In Old English, evil was the positive to worse, worst; but later bad and ill were borrowed from the Norse, and used as positives to the same comparative and superlative. Worser was once used, a double comparative; as in Shakespeare,—
O, throw away the worser part of it.—Hamlet.
(3) Little is used as positive to less, least, though from a different root. A double comparative, lesser, is often used; as,—