208. As has been seen, transitive verbs are the only kind that can express action so as to go over to an object. This implies three things,—the agent, or person or thing acting; the verb representing the action; the person or object receiving the act.
In the sentence, "We reached the village of Sorgues by dusk, and accepted the invitation of an old dame to lodge at her inn," these three things are found: the actor, or agent, is expressed by we; the action is asserted by reached and accepted; the things acted upon are village and invitation. Here the subject is represented as doing something. The same word is the subject and the agent. This use of a transitive verb is called the active voice.
209. The active voice is that form of a verb which represents the subject as acting; or
The active voice is that form of a transitive verb which makes the subject and the agent the same word.
210. Intransitive verbs are always active voice. Let the student explain why.
211. In the assertion of an action, it would be natural to suppose, that, instead of always representing the subject as acting upon some person or thing, it must often happen that the subject is spoken of as acted upon; and the person or thing acting may or may not be expressed in the sentence: for example,—
All infractions of love and equity in our social relations are speedily punished. They are punished by fear.—Emerson.
Here the subject infractions does nothing: it represents the object toward which the action of are punished is directed, yet it is the subject of the same verb. In the first sentence the agent is not expressed; in the second, fear is the agent of the same action.
So that in this case, instead of having the agent and subject the same word, we have the object and subject the same word, and the agent may be omitted from the statement of the action.
Passive is from the Latin word patior, meaning to endure or suffer; but in ordinary grammatical use passive means receiving an action.
212. The passive voice is that form of the verb which represents the subject as being acted upon; or—
The passive voice is that form of the verb which represents the subject and the object by the same word.
(a) Pick out the verbs in the active and the passive voice:—
1. In the large room some forty or fifty students were walking about while the parties were preparing.
2. This was done by taking off the coat and vest and binding a great thick leather garment on, which reached to the knees.
3. They then put on a leather glove reaching nearly to the shoulder, tied a thick cravat around the throat, and drew on a cap with a large visor.
4. This done, they were walked about the room a short time; their faces all this time betrayed considerable anxiety.
5. We joined the crowd, and used our lungs as well as any.
6. The lakes were soon covered with merry skaters, and every afternoon the banks were crowded with spectators.
7. People were setting up torches and lengthening the rafts which had been already formed.
8. The water was first brought in barrels drawn by horses, till some officer came and opened the fire plug.
9. The exclusive in fashionable life does not see that he excludes himself from enjoyment, in the attempt to appropriate it.
(b) Find sentences with five verbs in the active and five in the passive voice.
MOOD.
213. The word mood is from the Latin modus, meaning manner, way, method. Hence, when applied to verbs,—
Mood means the manner of conceiving and expressing action or being of some subject.
214. There are three chief ways of expressing action or being:—
(1) As a fact; this may be a question, statement, or assumption.
(2) As doubtful, or merely conceived of in the mind.
(3) As urged or commanded.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
215. The term indicative is from the Latin indicare (to declare, or assert). The indicative represents something as a fact,—
(1) By declaring a thing to be true or not to be true; thus,—
Distinction is the consequence, never the object, of a great mind.—Allston.
I do not remember when or by whom I was taught to read; because I cannot and never could recollect a time when I could not read my Bible.—D. Webster.
(2) By assuming a thing to be true without declaring it to be so. This kind of indicative clause is usually introduced by if (meaning admitting that, granting that, etc.), though, although, etc. Notice that the action is not merely conceived as possible; it is assumed to be a fact: for example,—
If the penalties of rebellion hung over an unsuccessful contest; if America was yet in the cradle of her political existence; if her population little exceeded two millions; if she was without government, without fleets or armies, arsenals or magazines, without military knowledge,—still her citizens had a just and elevated sense of her rights.—A. Hamilton.
(3) By asking a question to find out some fact; as,—
Is private credit the friend and patron of industry?—Hamilton.
With respect to novels what shall I say?—N. Webster.
216 .The indicative mood is that form of a verb which represents a thing as a fact, or inquires about some fact.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
217. Subjunctive means subjoined, or joined as dependent or subordinate to something else.
If its original meaning be closely adhered to, we must expect every dependent clause to have its verb in the subjunctive mood, and every clause not dependent to have its verb in some other mood.
But this is not the case. In the quotation from Hamilton (Sec. 215, 2) several subjoined clauses introduced by if have the indicative mood, and also independent clauses are often found having the verb in the subjunctive mood.
Three cautions will be laid down which must be observed by a student who wishes to understand and use the English subjunctive:—
(1) You cannot tell it always by the form of the word. The main difference is, that the subjunctive has no -s as the ending of the present tense, third person singular; as, "If he come."
(2) The fact that its clause is dependent or is introduced by certain words will not be a safe rule to guide you.
(3) The meaning of the verb itself must be keenly studied.
218. The subjunctive mood is that form or use of the verb which expresses action or being, not as a fact, but as merely conceived of in the mind.
Subjunctive in Independent Clauses.
I. Expressing a Wish.
219. The following are examples of this use:—
Heaven rest her soul!—Moore.
God grant you find one face there You loved when all was young.—Kingsley.
Now tremble dimples on your cheek, Sweet be your lips to taste and speak.—Beddoes.
Long die thy happy days before thy death.—Shakespeare.
II. A Contingent Declaration or Question.
220. This really amounts to the conclusion, or principal clause, in a sentence, of which the condition is omitted.
Our chosen specimen of the hero as literary man [if we were to choose one] would be this Goethe.—Carlyle.
And weep away the life of care
Which I have borne and yet must bear.
—Shelley.
Most excellent stranger, as you come to the lakes simply to see their loveliness, might it not be as well to ask after the most beautiful road, rather than the shortest?—De Quincey.
Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses.
I. Condition or Supposition.
221. The most common way of representing the action or being as merely thought of, is by putting it into the form of a supposition or condition; as,—
Now, if the fire of electricity and that of lightning be the same, this pasteboard and these scales may represent electrified clouds.—Franklin.
Here no assertion is made that the two things are the same; but, if the reader merely conceives them for the moment to be the same, the writer can make the statement following. Again,—
If it be Sunday [supposing it to be Sunday], the peasants sit on the church steps and con their psalm books.—Longfellow.
STUDY OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
222. There are three kinds of conditional sentences:—
(1) Those in which an assumed or admitted fact is placed before the mind in the form of a condition (see Sec. 215, 2); for example,—
If they were unacquainted with the works of philosophers and poets, they were deeply read in the oracles of God. If their names were not found in the registers of heralds, they were recorded in the Book of Life.—Macaulay.
(2) Those in which the condition depends on something uncertain, and may or may not be regarded true, or be fulfilled; as,—
If, in our case, the representative system ultimately fail, popular government must be pronounced impossible.—D. Webster.
If this be the glory of Julius, the first great founder of the Empire, so it is also the glory of Charlemagne, the second founder.—Bryce.
If any man consider the present aspects of what is called by distinction society, he will see the need of these ethics. —Emerson.
(3) Suppositions contrary to fact, which cannot be true, or conditions that cannot be fulfilled, but are presented only in order to suggest what might be or might have been true; thus,—
If these things were true, society could not hold together. —Lowell.
Did not my writings produce me some solid pudding, the great deficiency of praise would have quite discouraged me.—Franklin.
Had he for once cast all such feelings aside, and striven energetically to save Ney, it would have cast such an enhancing light over all his glories, that we cannot but regret its absence.—Bayne.
NOTE.—Conditional sentences are usually introduced by if, though, except, unless, etc.; but when the verb precedes the subject, the conjunction is often omitted: for example, "Were I bidden to say how the highest genius could be most advantageously employed," etc.
Exercise.
In the following conditional clauses, tell whether each verb is indicative or subjunctive, and what kind of condition:—
1. The voice, if he speak to you, is of similar physiognomy, clear, melodious, and sonorous.—Carlyle.
2. Were you so distinguished from your neighbors, would you, do you think, be any the happier?—Thackeray.
3. Epaminondas, if he was the man I take him for, would have sat still with joy and peace, if his lot had been mine.—Emerson.
4. If a damsel had the least smattering of literature, she was regarded as a prodigy.—Macaulay.
5. I told him, although it were the custom of our learned in Europe to steal inventions from each other,... yet I would take such caution that he should have the honor entire.—Swift.
6. If he had reason to dislike him, he had better not have written, since he [Byron] was dead.—N. P. Willis.
7. If it were prostrated to the ground by a profane hand, what native of the city would not mourn over its fall?—Gayarre.
8. But in no case could it be justified, except it be for a failure of the association or union to effect the object for which it was created.—Calhoun.
II. Subjunctive of Purpose.
223. The subjunctive, especially be, may, might, and should, is used to express purpose, the clause being introduced by that or lest; as,—
It was necessary, he supposed, to drink strong beer, that he might be strong to labor.—Franklin.
I have been the more particular...that you may compare such unlikely beginnings with the figure I have since made there.—Id.
He [Roderick] with sudden impulse that way rode, To tell of what had passed, lest in the strife They should engage with Julian's men.—Southey.
III. Subjunctive of Result.
224. The subjunctive may represent the result toward which an action tends:—
That vain it were her eyes to close.
—Coleridge.
The innumerable caravan...
Thou go not, like the quarry-slave at night.
—Bryant.
IV. In Temporal Clauses.
225. The English subjunctive, like the Latin, is sometimes used in a clause to express the time when an action is to take place.
Let it rise, till it meet the sun in his coming.—D. Webster.
Rise up, before it be too late!—Hawthorne.
Ere this be thrown aside.
—Wordsworth.
V. In Indirect Questions.
226. The subjunctive is often found in indirect questions, the answer being regarded as doubtful.
Ask the great man if there be none greater.—Emerson
What the best arrangement were, none of us could say.—Carlyle.
Whether it were morning or whether it were afternoon, in her confusion she had not distinctly known.—De Quincey.
VI. Expressing a Wish.
227. After a verb of wishing, the subjunctive is regularly used in the dependent clause.
The transmigiation of souls is no fable. I would it were! —Emerson.
Bright star! Would I were steadfast as thou art!—Keats.
And we, within its fairy bowers,
Were wafted off to seas unknown.
—Moore.
VII. In a Noun Clause.
228. The noun clause, in its various uses as subject, object, in apposition, etc., often contains a subjunctive.
The essence of originality is not that it be new.—Carlyle
To appreciate the wild and sharp flavors of those October fruits, it is necessary that you be breathing the sharp October or November air.—Thoreau.
The first merit, that which admits neither substitute nor equivalent, is, that everything be in its place.—Coleridge.
As sure as Heaven shall rescue me, I have no thought what men they be.—Coleridge.
Some might lament that I were cold.—Shelley.
This subjunctive is very frequent after verbs of commanding.
See that there be no traitors in your camp.—Tennyson.
And look thou tell me true.
—Scott.
See that thy scepter be heavy on his head.—De Quincey.
VIII. Concessive Clauses.
229. The concession may be expressed—
(1) In the nature of the verb; for example,—
Be the matter how it may, Gabriel Grub was afflicted with rheumatism to the end of his days.—Dickens.
Be the appeal made to the understanding or the heart, the sentence is the same—that rejects it.—Brougham
(2) By an indefinite relative word, which may be
(a) Pronoun.
And see the Braes of Yarrow.
—Wordsworth.
(b) Adjective.
That hunger of applause, of cash, or whatsoever victual it may be, is the ultimate fact of man's life.—Carlyle.
(c) Adverb.
The spirit he loves remains.
—Shelley.
Prevalence of the Subjunctive Mood.
230. As shown by the wide range of literature from which these examples are selected, the subjunctive is very much used in literary English, especially by those who are artistic and exact in the expression of their thought.
At the present day, however, the subjunctive is becoming less and less used. Very many of the sentences illustrating the use of the subjunctive mood could be replaced by numerous others using the indicative to express the same thoughts.
The three uses of the subjunctive now most frequent are, to express a wish, a concession, and condition contrary to fact.
In spoken English, the subjunctive were is much used in a wish or a condition contrary to fact, but hardly any other subjunctive forms are.
It must be remembered, though, that many of the verbs in the subjunctive have the same form as the indicative. Especially is this true of unreal conditions in past time; for example,—
Were we of open sense as the Greeks were, we had found [should have found] a poem here.—Carlyle.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
231. The imperative mood is the form of the verb used in direct commands, entreaties, or requests.
232. The imperative is naturally used mostly with the second person, since commands are directed to a person addressed.
(1) Command.
Call up the shades of Demosthenes and Cicero to vouch for your words; point to their immortal works.—J. Q. Adams.
Honor all men; love all men; fear none.—Channing.
(2) Entreaty.
Spare me and mine, nor let us need the wrath
Of the mad unchained elements.
—Bryant.
"Hush! mother," whispered Kit. "Come along with me."—Dickens
Tell me, how was it you thought of coming here?—Id.
But the imperative may be used with the plural of the first person. Since the first person plural person is not really I + I, but I + you, or I + they, etc., we may use the imperative with we in a command, request, etc., to you implied in it. This is scarcely ever found outside of poetry.
And, noble earl, receive my hand.
—Scott.
The silence dwells of my despair.
—Campbell.
—Shakespeare.
Usually this is expressed by let with the objective: "Let us go." And the same with the third person: "Let him be accursed."
Exercises on the Moods.
(a) Tell the mood of each verb in these sentences, and what special use it is of that mood:—
1. Wherever the standard of freedom and independence has been or shall be unfurled, there will her heart and her prayers be.
2.
While each performs his part,
Not all the lip can speak is worth
The silence of the heart.
3. Oh, that I might be admitted to thy presence! that mine were the supreme delight of knowing thy will!
4.
One glance at their array!
5. Whatever inconvenience ensue, nothing is to be preferred before justice.
6.
And use it for an anvil till he had filled
The shelves of heaven with burning thunderbolts.
7.
Our being, lest we rust in ease.
8.
And God forget the stranger!"
9. Think not that I speak for your sakes.
10. "Now tread we a measure!" said young Lochinvar.
11. Were that a just return? Were that Roman magnanimity?
12. Well; how he may do his work, whether he do it right or wrong, or do it at all, is a point which no man in the world has taken the pains to think of.
13. He is, let him live where else he like, in what pomps and prosperities he like, no literary man.
14. Could we one day complete the immense figure which these flagrant points compose!
15. "Oh, then, my dear madam," cried he, "tell me where I may find my poor, ruined, but repentant child."
16.
Except, disrobed of thy vain earthly vaunt,
Thou bring it to be blessed where saints and angels haunt?
17.
With a sad leaden downward cast
Thou fix them on the earth as fast.
18.
Blew mimic hootings to the silent owls,
That they might answer him.
19.
And dart their arrowy odor through the brain,
Till you might faint with that delicious pain.
20. That a man parade his doubt, and get to imagine that debating and logic is the triumph and true work of what intellect he has; alas! this is as if you should overturn the tree.
21.
That under deeply strikes!
The northern morning o'er thee shoot,
High up in silver spikes!
22. Though abyss open under abyss, and opinion displace opinion, all are at last contained in the Eternal cause.
23. God send Rome one such other sight!
24. "Mr. Marshall," continued Old Morgan, "see that no one mentions the United States to the prisoner."
25. If there is only one woman in the nation who claims the right to vote, she ought to have it.
26. Though he were dumb, it would speak.
27. Meantime, whatever she did,—whether it were in display of her own matchless talents, or whether it were as one member of a general party,—nothing could exceed the amiable, kind, and unassuming deportment of Mrs. Siddons.
28. It makes a great difference to the force of any sentence whether there be a man behind it or no.
(b) Find sentences with five verbs in the indicative mood, five in the subjunctive, five in the imperative.
TENSE.
233. Tense means time. The tense of a verb is the form or use indicating the time of an action or being.
Old English had only two tenses,—the present tense, which represented present and future time; and the past tense. We still use the present for the future in such expressions as, "I go away to-morrow;" "If he comes, tell him to wait."
But English of the present day not only has a tense for each of the natural time divisions,—present, past, and future,—but has other tenses to correspond with those of highly inflected languages, such as Latin and Greek.
The distinct inflections are found only in the present and past tenses, however: the others are compounds of verbal forms with various helping verbs, called auxiliaries; such as be, have, shall, will.
234. Action or being may be represented as occurring in present, past, or future time, by means of the present, the past, and the future tense. It may also be represented as finished in present or past or future time by means of the present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect tenses.
Not only is this so: there are what are called definite forms of these tenses, showing more exactly the time of the action or being. These make the English speech even more exact than other languages, as will be shown later on, in the conjugations.
PERSON AND NUMBER.
235. The English verb has never had full inflections for number and person, as the classical languages have.
When the older pronoun thou was in use, there was a form of the verb to correspond to it, or agree with it, as, "Thou walkest," present; "Thou walkedst," past; also, in the third person singular, a form ending in -eth, as, "It is not in man that walketh, to direct his steps."
But in ordinary English of the present day there is practically only one ending for person and number. This is the third person, singular number; as, "He walks;" and this only in the present tense indicative. This is important in questions of agreement when we come to syntax.
CONJUGATION.
236. Conjugation is the regular arrangement of the forms of the verb in the various voices, moods, tenses, persons, and numbers.
In classical languages, conjugation means joining together the numerous endings to the stem of the verb; but in English, inflections are so few that conjugation means merely the exhibition of the forms and the different verb phrases that express the relations of voice, mood, tense, etc.
237. Verbs in modern English have only four or five forms; for example, walk has walk, walks, walked, walking, sometimes adding the old forms walkest, walkedst, walketh. Such verbs as choose have five,—choose, chooses, chose, choosing, chosen (old, choosest, chooseth, chosest).
The verb be has more forms, since it is composed of several different roots,—am, are, is, were, been, etc.
238. INFLECTIONS OF THE VERB BE.
Indicative Mood.
| PRESENT TENSE. | PAST TENSE. | ||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
| 1. I am | We are | 1. I was | We were |
| 2. You are (thou art) |
You are | 2. You were (thou wast, wert) |
You were |
| 3. [He] is | [They] are | 3. [He] was | [They were] |
Subjunctive Mood.
| PRESENT TENSE. | PAST TENSE. | ||
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural |
| 1. I be | We be | 1. I were | We were |
| 2. You (thou) be | You be | 2. You were (thou wert) |
You were |
| 3. [He] be | [They] be | 3. [He] were | [They] were |
Imperative Mood.
| PRESENT TENSE |
| Singular and Plural |
| Be. |
239. This conjugation is pieced out with three different roots: (1) am, is; (2) was, were; (3) be.
Instead of the plural are, Old English had beoth and sind or sindon, same as the German sind. Are is supposed to have come from the Norse language.
The old indicative third person plural be is sometimes found in literature, though it is usually a dialect form; for example,—
Where be the sentries who used to salute as the Royal chariots drove in and out?—Thackeray
Where be the gloomy shades, and desolate mountains?—Whittier
240. The forms of the verb be have several uses:—
(1) As principal verbs.
The light that never was on sea and land.—Wordsworth.
(2) As auxiliary verbs, in four ways,—
(a) With verbal forms in -ing (imperfect participle) to form the definite tenses.
Broadswords are maddening in the rear,—Each broadsword bright was brandishing like beam of light.—Scott.
(b) With the past participle in -ed, -en, etc., to form the passive voice.
His infancy was nurtured.
—Shelley.
(c) With past participle of intransitive verbs, being equivalent to the present perfect and past perfect tenses active; as,
We drank tea, which was now become an occasional banquet.—Goldsmith.
(d) With the infinitive, to express intention, obligation, condition, etc.; thus,
It was to have been called the Order of Minerva.—Thackeray.
Ingenuity and cleverness are to be rewarded by State prizes.—Id.
If I were to explain the motion of a body falling to the ground.—Burke
241. INFLECTIONS OF THE VERB CHOOSE.
Indicative Mood.
| PRESENT TENSE. | PAST TENSE. | |||
| Singular. | Plural. | Singular. | Plural. | |
| 1. I choose | We choose | 1. I chose | We chose | |
| 2. You choose | You choose | 2. You chose | You chose | |
| 3. [He] chooses | [They] choose | 3. [He] chose | [They] chose | |
Subjunctive Mood.
| PRESENT TENSE. | PAST TENSE. | |||
| Singular. | Plural. | Singular. | Plural. | |
| 1. I choose | We choose | 1. I chose | We chose | |
| 2. You choose | You choose | 2. You chose | You chose | |
| 3. [He] choose | [They] choose | 3. [He] chose | [They] chose | |
Imperative Mood.
| PRESENT TENSE |
| Singular and Plural |
| Choose. |
FULL CONJUGATION OF THE VERB CHOOSE.
242. In addition to the above inflected forms, there are many periphrastic or compound forms, made up of auxiliaries with the infinitives and participles. Some of these have been indicated in Sec. 240, (2).
The ordinary tenses yet to be spoken of are made up as follows:—
(1) Future tense, by using shall and will with the simple or root form of the verb; as, "I shall be," "He will choose."
(2) Present perfect, past perfect, future perfect, tenses, by placing have, had, and shall (or will) have before the past participle of any verb; as, "I have gone" (present perfect), "I had gone" (past perfect), "I shall have gone" (future perfect).
(3) The definite form of each tense, by using auxiliaries with the imperfect participle active; as, "I am running," "They had been running."
(4) The passive forms, by using the forms of the verb be before the past participle of verbs; as, "I was chosen," "You are chosen."
243. The following scheme will show how rich our language is in verb phrases to express every variety of meaning. Only the third person, singular number, of each tense, will be given.
ACTIVE VOICE.
| Indicative Mood. | |
| Present. | He chooses. |
| Present definite. | He is choosing. |
| Past. | He chose. |
| Past definite. | He was choosing. |
| Future. | He will choose. |
| Future definite. | He will he choosing. |
| Present perfect. | He has chosen. |
| Present perfect definite. | He has been choosing. |
| Past perfect. | He had chosen. |
| Past perfect definite. | He had been choosing. |
| Future perfect. | He will have chosen. |
| Future perfect definite. | He will have been choosing. |
| Subjunctive Mood. | ||
| Present. | [If, though, lest, etc.] | he choose. |
| Present definite. | " | he be choosing. |
| Past. | " | he chose (or were to choose). |
| Past definite. | " | he were choosing (or were to be choosing). |
| Present perfect. | " | he have chosen. |
| Present perfect definite. | " | he have been choosing. |
| Past perfect. | " | Same as indicative. |
| Past perfect definite. | " | Same as indicative. |
| Imperative Mood. | ||
| Present. | (2d per.) | Choose. |
| Present definite. | " | Be choosing. |
NOTE.—Since participles and infinitives are not really verbs, but verbals, they will be discussed later (Sec. 262).
PASSIVE VOICE.
| Indicative Mood. | |
| Present. | He is chosen. |
| Present definite. | He is being chosen. |
| Past. | He was chosen. |
| Past definite. | He was being chosen. |
| Future. | He will be chosen. |
| Future definite. | None. |
| Present perfect. | He has been chosen. |
| Present perfect definite. | None. |
| Past perfect. | He had been chosen. |
| Past perfect definite. | None. |
| Future perfect. | He will have been chosen. |
| Future perfect definite. | None. |
| Subjunctive Mood. | ||
| Present.. | [If, though, lest, etc.] | he be chosen. |
| Present definite. | " | None. |
| Past. | " | he were chosen (or were to be chosen). |
| Past definite. | " | he were being chosen. |
| Present perfect. | " | he have been chosen. |
| Present perfect definite. | " | None. |
| Past Perfect. | " | he had been chosen. |
| Past perfect definite. | " | None. |
| Imperative Mood. | ||
| Present tense. | (2d per.) | Be chosen. |
Also, in affirmative sentences, the indicative present and past tenses have emphatic forms made up of do and did with the infinitive or simple form; as, "He does strike," "He did strike."
[Note to Teacher.—This table is not to be learned now; if learned at all, it should be as practice work on strong and weak verb forms. Exercises should be given, however, to bring up sentences containing such of these conjugation forms as the pupil will find readily in literature.]