Ancient Rome : from the earliest times down to 476 A. D.

CHAPTER XLVII. PUBLIC BUILDINGS, SQUARES, ETC.

Rome was built on seven hills,—the Palatine, the Aventine, the Capitoline, the Esquiline (the largest), the Quirínal, the Viminal, and the Coelian.

There were various public squares (forum = square or park). Some were places of resort for public business, and most were adorned with porticos. The most celebrated square was the Forum Románum, or simply The Forum. There were also the Forum Caesaris and Forum Trajáni. Some served as markets; as Forum Boarium, the cattle market; Forum Suarium, the hog market, etc.

Temples were numerous. The Pantheon (temple of all the gods), built by Agrippa and restored by Hadrian, was dedicated to Jupiter. It was situated outside of the city, in the Campus Martius, and is now used as a Christian church. The Temple of Apollo Palatínus, built by Augustus, was on the Palatine Hill. It contained a library, which was founded by Augustus. The Temple of Aesculapius was on an island in the Tiber; that of Concordia, on the slope of the Capitoline Hill, was dedicated in 377 B.C., and restored by Tiberius. The Temple of Janus was an arched passage east of the Forum, the gates of which were open during war. Up to the time of Ovid the gates had been closed but three times, once in Numa's reign, again at the close of the battle of Actium. Janus was one of the oldest Latin divinities, and was represented with a face in front and another on the back of his head. From him is named the month of January.

(Illustration: ROME AND ENVIR.)

There were several temples of Jupiter, the most famous of which was that of Jupiter Optimus, Maximus, or Capitolínus, built during the dynasty of the Tarquins, and splendidly adorned. (See Chapter V.) There were also numerous temples of Juno, of Mars, and of other deities.

The COLOSSÉUM was the largest building in Rome.

There were three theatres; that of Pompey, of Marcellus, and of Balbus; and several circuses, the most famous of which was the Circus Maximus.

The BASILICAE were halls of justice (court-houses). The most important was the Basilica Julia, begun by Caesar and finished by Augustus, which was situated on the south side of the Forum, and the foundations of which can still be seen.

The CURIA, or Senate-house, was in the Forum. Each of the thirty curiae had a place of meeting, called also a curia, where were discussed public questions pertaining to politics, finance, or religion.

The PUBLIC BATHS were numerous. There were Thermae (hot baths) of Nero, of Titus, of Trajan, of Caracalla, and of others, ruins of which still exist.

Pure water was brought into the city from the surrounding hills by fourteen different aqueducts, all of which were well built, and three of which are still in use. The first aqueduct (Aqua Appia) was built about 313 B.C., by Appius Claudius.

SEWERS intersected Rome in all directions, and some were of immense size. The CLOÁCA MAXIMA, built by Tarquin, was the largest, and is still in use. Its innermost arch has a diameter of fourteen feet.

There are said to have been twenty TRIUMPHAL ARCHES, of which five now remain, 1. The ARCH OF DRUSUS, on the Appian Way, erected in honor of Claudius Drusus. 2. The ARCH OF TITUS, at the foot of the Palatine Hill, built by Titus to commemorate his conquest of Judaea, The bas-reliefs on this arch represent the spoils taken from the temple at Jerusalem, carried in triumphal procession. 3. The ARCH OF SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS, built by the Senate in 207 A. D., at the end of the Via Sacra, in honor of the Emperor and his two sons for their conquest of the Parthians and Arabians. 4. The ARCH OF GALLIÉNUS. 5. The ARCH OF CONSTANTINE.

There were two famous MAUSOLÉA, that of Augustus, now in ruins, and that of Hadrian, which, stripped of its ornaments, is now the Castle of San Angelo.

The COLUMNS commemorating persons or events were numerous. The most remarkable of these were erected for naval victories, and called COLUMNAE ROSTRÁTAE. The one of Duilius, in honor of the victory at Mylae (261 B. C.), still stands. It has three ship-beaks attached to each side. Columns were built in honor of several Emperors. That of Trajan is perhaps best known.

The COLUMNA MILLIARIA was a milestone set up by Augustus in the Forum, from which all distances on the different public roads were measured. It was called Milliarium Aureum, or the golden milestone.

CHAPTER XLVIII. COLONIES.—THE CALENDAR.—RELIGION.

Colonies were established by Rome throughout its whole history. They were intended to keep in check a conquered people, and also to repress hostile incursions. Many were founded to provide for veteran soldiers; a practice which was begun by Sulla, and continued under the Emperors.

No colony was established without a lex, plebiscítum, or senatus consultum. Religious ceremonies always accompanied their foundation, and the anniversary was observed.

The colonies were divided into two classes, viz. Roman, and Latin or military. Members of the former class had all the rights of Roman citizens; those of the latter could not vote in the Comitia at Rome. The Latíni, who were once Roman citizens, and who always felt equal to them, were uneasy in their subordinate position. But by the Julian law, passed in 90 B. C., they acquired the right of voting at Rome, and were placed on the same footing as Roman colonists.

THE CALENDAR.

The Roman year began with March. There were twelve months, and each month had three divisions, the KALENDS, NONES, and IDES. The Kalends fell on the first of the month; the Nones, on the 7th of March, May, July, and October; in other months, on the 5th. The Ides came eight days after the Nones. If an event happened on these divisions, it was said to occur on the Kalends, Nones, or Ides of the month. If it happened between any of these divisions, it was said to occur so many days before the division following the event. The year was reckoned from the foundation of the city (753 B.C.), and often the names of the Consuls of that year were added.

RELIGION.

The Romans were religious, and had numerous gods and goddesses: JUPITER and JUNO, the god and goddess of light; SATURN, the god of seed-sowing; TELLUS, the goddess of the nourishing earth; CERES, the goddess of growth; CONSUS and OPS, who presided over the harvest; PALES, the god of the flocks; and LUPERCUS, the god of fertility. Various festivals were celebrated in honor of these, as the Saturnalia, in December; the Tellilia (Tellus), Cerialia (Ceres), and Palilia (Pales), in April; and the Lupercalia, in February.

VESTA was the goddess of the house, and as every family had an altar erected for her worship, so the state, as a combination of families, had a common altar to her in the temple of Vesta. In this temple were also worshipped the Penátes and Lares.

The LARES were special guardians of private houses. Some protected fields and cities. Images of Lares of diminutive size, clad often in dog-skins, were ranged along the hearth. The people honored them on the Kalends of May and other festival days by decking them with flowers, and by offering them wine, incense, flour, and portions of their meals upon plates.

The PENÁTES were kept and worshipped only in the inmost chambers of houses and temples. Their statues, made of wax, wood, or ivory, were also kept in the inner hall.

The priestesses of Vesta were six in number, and were called VESTAL VIRGINS. When a vestal was to be elected, the Pontifex Maximus chose twenty young girls from high families. Of these one was chosen by lot to fill the vacancy, and she was bound to serve for thirty years. The Vestals were preceded by a lictor when in public. They had private seats in the public shows, and had the power of delivering from punishment any condemned person they happened to meet. They wore white dresses and white fillets. Their chief duty was to keep the fire always burning on the hearth (focus publicus) in the temple. They could not marry.

FLAMINES.

The FLAMINES were priests devoted to the service of some particular god. There were fifteen, and they were chosen first in the Comitia Curiáta, and afterwards probably in the Tributa. The most distinguished of all the Flamines was the FLAMEN DIÁLIS (Jupiter). He had the right to a lictor, to the sella curulis, and to a seat in the Senate. If one in bonds took refuge in his house, the chains were at once removed. This priest, however, could not be away from the city a single night, and was forbidden to sleep out of his own bed for three consecutive nights. He was not allowed to mount a horse, or even to touch one, or to look upon an army outside of the city walls.

THE SALII. These were priests of Mars, twelve in number, and always chosen from the patricians. They celebrated the festival of Mars on the 1st of March, and for several successive days.

THE AUGURES.

This body varied in number, from three, in early times, to sixteen in the time of Caesar. It was composed of men who were believed to interpret the will of the gods, and to declare whether the omens were favorable or otherwise. No public act of any kind could be performed, no election held, no law passed, no war waged, without first consulting the omens. There was no appeal from the decision of the Augurs, and hence their power was great. They held office for life, and were a close corporation, filling their own vacancies until 103 B. C.

THE FETIALES.

This was another body of priests holding office for life, and numbering probably twenty. They were expected, whenever any dispute arose with other nations, to demand satisfaction, to determine whether hostilities should be begun, and to preside at any ratification of peace.

CHAPTER XLIX. THE ROMAN ARMY IN CAESAR'S TIME.

The LEGIO was composed of infantry, and, though larger, corresponded to our regiment. It was divided into ten cohorts (battalions), each cohort into three maniples (companies), and each maniple into two centuries (platoons). In theory the number in each legion was six thousand, in practice about four thousand. The usual order of battle was to draw up each legion in three lines (acies triplex), the first consisting of four cohorts, the second and third of three each. The defensive armor of the legionary soldier was a helmet of metal or leather, a shield (four feet by two and a half), greaves, and corselets of various material. The outer garment was a woollen blanket, fastened to the shoulders by a buckle. Higher officers wore a long purple cloak. The offensive armor was a short, straight two-edged sword (gladius), about two feet long, worn by privates on the right side, so as not to interfere with the shield, but on the left side by officers. The javelin (pilum) was a heavy wooden shaft with an iron head, the whole about seven feet long and weighing fully ten pounds. All legionary soldiers were Roman citizens. The auxiliaries were hired or drafted troops, and were always light-armed. The cavalry in Caesar's time was made up of auxiliaries taken from the different provinces.

The COHORS PRAETORIA was a body of picked troops that acted as body guard to the Imperator.

The STANDARD (signum) of the legion was an eagle with outstretched wings, perched upon a pole.

The Romans when on the march fortified their camp every night. They made it rectangular in shape, and threw up fortifications always in the same way. It was surrounded by a ditch and rampart. The legionary soldiers encamped next to the wall on the inside of the fortifications, thus surrounding the cavalry, the auxiliaries, the general and his staff. The general's tent was called the Praetorium, and the entrance to the camp in front of his tent was called the Praetorian Gate. The opposite entrance was called the Decuman Gate.

CHAPTER L. LEGENDARY ROME.

AENEAS, son of Anchíses and Venus, fled from Troy after its capture by the Greeks (1184?) and came to Italy. He was accompanied by his son IÚLUS and a number of brave followers. LATÍNUS, who was king of the district where Aenéas landed, received him kindly, and gave him his daughter, LAVINIA, in marriage. Aenéas founded a city, which he named LAVINIUM, in honor of his wife. After his death, Iúlus, also called ASCANIUS, became king. He founded on Mount Albánus a city, which he called ALBA LONGA, and to it transferred the capital.

Here a number of kings ruled in succession, the last of whom was SILVIUS PROCAS, who left two sons, NUMITOR, the older, and AMULIUS. They divided the kingdom, the former choosing the property, the latter the crown. Numitor had two children, a son and a daughter. Amulius, fearing that they might aspire to the throne, murdered the son, and made the daughter, RHEA SILVIA, a Vestal virgin. This he did to prevent her marrying, for this was forbidden to Vestal virgins. She, however, became pregnant by Mars, and had twin sons, whom she named ROMULUS and REMUS. When Amulius was informed of this, he cast their mother into prison, and ordered the boys to be drowned in the Tiber.

At this time the river was swollen by rains, and had overflowed its banks. The boys were thrown into a shallow place, escaped drowning, and, the water subsiding, they were left on dry land. A she wolf, hearing their cries, ran to them and suckled them. FAUSTULUS, a shepherd who was near by, seeing this, took the boys home and reared them. When they grew up and learned who they were, they killed Amulius, and gave the kingdom to their grandfather, Numitor. Then (753) they founded a city on Mount Palatínus, which they called ROME, after Romulus. While they were building a wall around this city, Remus was killed in a quarrel with his brother.

Romulus, first king of Rome, ruled for thirty-seven years (753-716). He found the city needed inhabitants, and to increase their number he opened an asylum, to which many refugees fled. But wives were needed. To supply this want, he celebrated games, and invited the neighboring people, the SABINES, to attend the sports. When all were engaged in looking on, the Romans suddenly made a rush and seized the Sabine virgins. This bold robbery caused a war, which finally ended in a compromise, and a sharing of the city with the Sabines. Romulus then chose one hundred Senators, whom he called PATRES. He also divided the people into thirty wards. In the thirty-seventh year of his reign he disappeared, and was believed to have been taken up into heaven.

One year followed without any king, and then NUMA POMPILIUS(716-673), a Sabine from Cures, was chosen. He was a good man, and a great lawgiver. Many sacred rites were instituted by him to civilize his barbarous subjects. He reformed the calendar, and built a temple to the god Janus. TULLUS HOSTILIUS(673-641) succeeded him. His reign was noted for the fall of Alba Longa. Then came ANCUS MARCIUS (640-616), the grandson of Numa. He was a good ruler and popular. He conquered the Latins, enlarged the city, and built new walls around it. He was the first to build a prison, and to bridge the Tiber. (Footnote: This bridge was called the pons sublicius i. e. a bridge resting on piles.) He also founded a city at its mouth, which he called OSTIA.

The next three kings were of Etruscan origin. LUCIUS TARQUINIUS PRISCUS (616-578) went to Rome first during the reign of Ancus, and, becoming a favorite of his, was appointed guardian of his sons. After the death of Ancus, he wrested the government from them, and became king himself. He increased the Senators to two hundred, carried on many wars successfully, and thus enlarged the territory of the city. He built the CLOÁCA MAXIMA, or great sewer, which is used to-day. Tarquin also began the temple of JUPITER CAPITOLÍNUS, on the Capitoline Hill. He was killed in the thirty-eighth year of his reign by the sons of Ancus, from whom he had snatched the kingdom.

His successor was his son-in-law, SERVIUS TULLIUS (578-534), who enlarged the city still more, built a temple to Diána, and took a census of the people. It was found that the city and suburbs contained 83,000 souls. Servius was killed by his daughter, Tullia, and her husband, Tarquinius Superbus, son of Priscus.

TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS succeeded to the throne (534-510). He was energetic in war, and conquered many neighboring places, among which was Ardea, a city of the Rutuli. He finished the temple of Jupiter, begun by his father. He also obtained the SIBYLLINE BOOKS. A woman from Cumae, a Greek colony, came to him, and offered for sale nine books of oracles and prophecies; but the price seemed exorbitant, and he refused to purchase them. The sibyl then burned three, and, returning, asked the same price for the remaining six. The king again refused. She burned three more, and obtained from the monarch for her last three the original price. These books were preserved in the Capitol, and held in great respect. They were destroyed with the temple by fire, on July 6, 83. Two men had charge of them, who were called duoviri sacrórum. The worship of the Greek deities, Apollo and Latóna, among others, was introduced through these books.

In 510 a conspiracy was formed against Tarquin by BRUTUS, COLLATÍNUS, and others, and the gates of the city were closed against him. (Footnote: The cause of the conspiracy was the violence offered by Sextus, Tarquin's son, to Lucretia, wife of Collatínus. Unable to bear the humiliation, she killed herself in the presence of her family, having first appealed to them to avenge her wrongs) A Republic was then formed, with two Consuls at the head of the government.

Tarquin made three attempts to recover his power at Rome, all unsuccessful. (Footnote: The victory of Lake Regillus, which has been painted by Macaulay in glowing colors, was gained over Tarquin in 509.) In the last attempt (508), he was assisted by PORSENA, king of the Etruscans. They advanced against the city from the north. HORATIUS COCLES, a brave young man, alone defended the bridge (pans sublicius) over the Tiber until it was torn down behind him. He then swam the river in safety to his friends. (Footnote: See Macaulay's "Lays of Ancient Rome.")

During the siege of the city, QUINTUS MUCIUS SCAEVOLA, a courageous youth, stole into the camp of the enemy with the intention of killing King Porsena, but by mistake killed his secretary instead. He was seized and carried to Porsena, who tried to frighten him by threats of burning. Instead of replying, Scaevola held his right hand on the burning altar until it was consumed. The king, admiring this heroic act, pardoned him. Out of gratitude, Scaevola told the king that three hundred other men as brave as himself had sworn to kill him. Porsena was so alarmed, that he made peace, and withdrew from the city. Mucius received his name Scaevola (left-handed) on account of this loss of his right hand.

Tarquin went to Tusculum, where he spent the rest of his days in retirement.

In 494 the plebeians at Rome rebelled, because they were exhausted by taxes and military service. A large part of them left the city, and crossed the Anio to a mountain (Mons Sacer) near by. The Senate sent MENENIUS AGRIPPA to treat with them. By his exertions (Footnote: Menenius is said to have related for them the famous fable of the belly and members.) the people were induced to return to the city, and for the first time were allowed to have officers chosen from their own ranks to represent their interests. These officers were called Tribúni Plebis.

Two years later (492) Gaius Marcius, one of the patricians, met and defeated the Volsci, a neighboring tribe, at CORIOLI. For this he received the name of CORIOLÁNUS. During a famine, he advised that grain should not be distributed to the plebeians unless they relinquished their right to choose the Tribúni Plebis. For this he was banished. Having obtained command of a Volscian army, he marched against Rome, and came within five miles of the city. Here he was met by a deputation of his own citizens, who begged him to spare the city. He refused; but, when his wife and mother added their tears, he was induced to withdraw the army. He was afterwards killed by the Volscians as a traitor. (Footnote: See Shakespeare's "Coriolanus.")

After the expulsion of Tarquin, the FABII were among the most distinguished men at Rome. There were three brothers, and for seven consecutive years one of them was Consul. It looked as if the Fabian gens would get control of the government. The state took alarm, and the whole gens, numbering 306 males and 4,000 dependents, was driven from Rome. For two years they carried on war alone against the Veientes, but finally were surprised and slain (477). One boy, Quintus Fabius Vibulánus, alone survived to preserve the name and gens of the Fabii.

In 458 the Romans were hard pressed by the Aequi. Their territory had been overrun, and their Consuls, cut off in some defiles, were in imminent danger of destruction. LUCIUS QUINCTUS CINCINNÁTUS was appointed Dictator. He was one of the most noted Roman warriors of this period. The ambassadors sent to inform him of his appointment found him working with bare arms in his field. Cincinnátus told his wife to throw over him his mantle, that he might receive the messengers of the state with proper respect. Such was the simplicity of his character, and yet so deeply did he reverence authority. The Aequi could not withstand his vigorous campaign, but were obliged soon to surrender, and made to pass under the yoke as a sign of humiliation. The Dictator enjoyed a well earned triumph.

In 451 one of the Decemviri, APPIUS CLAUDIUS, was captivated by the beauty of a patrician maiden, VIRGINIA, (Footnote: See Macaulay's "Lays of Ancient Rome.") a daughter of Lucius Virginius, and the betrothed of Lucius Icilius. He formed, with one of his tools, an infamous plot to obtain possession of Virginia, under pretence that she was a slave. When, in spite of all the efforts of the girl's father and lover, the Decemvir had, in his official capacity, adjudged her to be the slave of his tool, Virginius plunged a knife into his daughter's bosom, in presence of the people in the Forum. The enraged populace compelled the Decemviri to resign, and Appius, to escape worse punishment, put an end to his own life.

MARCUS FURIUS CAMILLUS was a famous man of a little later period. He was called a second Romulus for his distinguished services. In 396 he captured Veii, after a siege of ten years. On his return he celebrated the most magnificent triumph yet seen at Rome. He was afterwards impeached for not having fairly divided the spoils obtained at Veii, and went into exile at Ardea. When Rome was besieged by the Gauls under Brennus, in 390, Camillus was recalled and made Dictator. At the head of forty thousand men he hastened to the city, raised the siege, and in the battle which followed annihilated the Gauls. He was Dictator five times, Interrex three times, Military Tribune twice, and enjoyed four triumphs. He died at the advanced age of eighty-eight.

CHRONOLOGY.

SPECIMEN EXAMINATION PAPERS.

HARVARD COLLEGE.

JUNE, 1889.

1. Place or explain the following: Capua; Numidia; Veii; Pharsálus; Comitia Centuriata; Decemvir; law of Majestas. With what important events was each connected? (Omit one; answer very briefly.)

2. The campaigns of Pyrrhus in Italy.

3. The causes and results of the Samnite Wars.

4. Cato's efforts to reform the government of Rome.

5. (a) Education in Rome. (b) Amusements at Rome. (Take one)

1888.

1. Basilica; Lex Publilia; Patrician; Triumvir; Tribune; Roman citizen,—what were they? (Take four.)

2. (a) How did Augustus obtain his power? (b) The reign of Hadrian; (c) The first Punic war. (Take one.)

3. (a) The Roman religion; (b) Decay of the Empire, (Take one)

4. Sulla's rule in Rome.

5. The tribes at the time of the Second Punic War. (4 and 5 are for "additional readings.")

1887.

(a) (Take five.) The Allia, Agrigentum, Lilybaeum, Placentia, Cannae, Numantia, Massilia,-where? Mention (with dates) historical events connected with four of these places. (Take any two.)

1. How were the members of the Roman Senate chosen at different times?

2. The origin of the Praetorship. What were the duties of the Praetor?

3. Describe or explain any five: Pater Patratus, Feriae Latinae, Curia, Equites, Flamines, the Licinian Laws, the law of Majestas.

Questions on the "additional reading."

(Candidates who have read the books recommended for additional reading may substitute one of the following questions for one of the first three in this group.)

4. (TIGHE.) How did the practical powers of the Roman Senate differ from its theoretical powers?

5. (BEESLEY.) What can be said in defence of the Lex Frumentaria of Gaius Gracchus?

September, 1886.

1. Give an account of the races which inhabited Italy before the founding of Rome.

2. What were the principal Greek colonies on the shores of the Mediterranean? For what were three of them celebrated?

3. Describe the three forms of the Roman comitia, and trace the development of the comitia tributa.

4. What were some causes of the victory of Rome in the Punic wars? The effect of this victory upon Italy?

5. Explain patria potestas, princeps senatus, municipium, ager Romanus, equites.

YALE COLLEGE.

EXAMINATION FOR ADMISSION.

June, 1889.

1. The Patricians and Plebeians: first causes of strife between them. Steps in the political progress of the Plebeians. Censors. Tribunes. Licinian Laws.

2. Greek influences on Roman life: what were they? In what ways and at what times introduced?

3. The Second Punic War: its causes. Hannibal's great march. Battles in Italy. Hasdrubal. Transference of the war. The result. Why did Hannibal fail?

4. Give some account of the members of the First Triumvirate.

5. Arrange in chronological order, with dates: Actium. The Gracchi. First Samnite War. Pharsálus Regulus. Teutones and Cimbri. Numantia. Capture of Rome by the Gauls. Cicero's first oration against Catiline.

1887.

(Time allowed, 30 minutes.)

1. What powers did Octavianus Augustus take to himself? What change did he make in the government of Rome? What changes did Constantine make?

2. The gradual extension of the right of Roman citizenship, the causes of each extension, and dates.

3. What were the possessions of Rome at the beginning of the Christian era? How were they acquired, and when?

4. Explain praetorian guards; provincia; colonia; tribunus plebis; comitia centuriata.

5. Allia, Beneventum, Saguntum, Metaurus, Pharsalia; where were they? what happened there, and when?

1886.

1. Describe the circumstances under which the tribunate was established.

2. When and where did the principal military events in the war between the Caesarians and Pompeians occur?

3. Sketch briefly the career of Pompeius.

4. What persons composed the Second Triumvirate? In what essential points did the Second Triumvirate differ from the First?

5. When and for what reasons was the right of citizenship given to the provinces?

6. What radical changes in the government were made by Diocletian?

June, 1885.

1. Give an account of the Second Punic War (with dates).

2. Explain tribunus plebis, censor, dictator, imperator.

3. How were the provinces governed under the Republic, and how under the Empire?

4. What were the causes of the Social War, and what the results?

5. When and where did the following events take place: the defeat of Varus; the first Roman naval victory; the decisive victory over Pyrrhus; the death of Brutus and Cassius; the conquest of the first Roman province?

UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK.

35TH ACADEMIC EXAMINATION November 22, 1889.—Time, 9.30 A.M. to 12 M., only. 48 credits; necessary to pass, 36.

1. Mention two prominent characteristics of the Roman people. (2)

2. Mention one element which Rome has contributed to the civilization of the world. (1)

3. Mention two foreign enemies that fought Rome on Italian soil; state the result in each contest. (4)

4. Describe the situation of any two of the following places, and state an important historical event connected with each: Caudine Forks; Pharsalia; Pompeii; Cannae. (4)

5. Which occurred first: (1) Fall of Carthage, or captivity of Jugurtha; (2) Battle of Actium, or battle of Philippi; (3) Death of Antony, or death of Cicero? (3)

6. What do you understand by a "proscription"? Mention the two which occur in Roman history. (3)

7. What were gladiators? who was their leader when they rebelled? (2)

8. What notable service was rendered to his country by Camillus; Tiberius Gracchus; Marius; Cicero? (4)

9. Mention two laws that are landmarks in Roman history. (2)

10. Give the boundaries of the Roman Empire at the beginning of the Christian era. (3)

11. Briefly describe the system of slavery as it existed in Rome.(2)

12. What was the Haruspex? how did he determine future events? (2)

13. Was the Roman government usually tolerant of religion? on what ground were the Christians punished? (2)

14. Describe the way in which the Romans attacked fortified towns. Describe two engines used by them for this purpose.(3)

15. Whence did Rome derive literature and art? (2)

THE LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES OF CORNELIUS SULLA.

16. To which of the two great parties in Rome did Sulla belong? (1)

17. Tell something of the reforms which he instituted. (2)

18. Mention two wars in which Sulla was engaged. (2)

19. Briefly describe his dictatorship and how it came to an end. (2)

20. Give a sketch of the character of Sulla. (2)

34TH ACADEMIC EXAMINATION.

June 14, 1889.—Time, 9 30 A.M. to 12 M., only.

48 credits; necessary to pass, 36.

1. Give a brief account of any two races which inhabited Italy before the founding of Rome.(2)

2. On how many hills was Rome built? Give the names of three of them. (4)

3. Narrate the circumstances under which the Tribunes were first elected. (1)

4. What were the "public lands"? what political question arose in connection with them? (2)

5. What king of Epirus made war on the Romans? Why? What grounds had he for hoping to succeed? (3)

6. Mention two reasons why Hannibal hoped to overcome Rome. Why did he fail? (3)

7. What importance in Roman history is attached to the following dates: B.C. 55, 44, 42? (3)

8. Briefly describe the political situation when Caesar crossed the Rubicon. What were the chief consequences of his act? what was "the Rubicon"? (3)

9. What power was intrusted to a Roman Dictator? Mention two instances of this. (3)

10. Give the names of the Flavian Emperors, with some account of one of them. (4)

11. What radical change in the Roman government was made by Diocletian? (1)

12. Give a brief description of Julian the Apostate; tell why he was so called. (2)

13. Mention three objects which a Roman would be sure to point out to a stranger visiting Rome at the time of the Emperor Titus.(3)

14. Mention any three writers of the Augustan age, and the character of the writings of each. (6)

15. Mention two principal causes which contributed to the downfall of Rome. (2)

THE LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES OF CAIUS MARIUS.

16. To what class of the people did Marius belong? (1)

17. In what war did he first gain great distinction? (1)

18. By the defeat of what peoples did he gain the title of "Saviour of his Country"? (1)

19. How many times was Marius elected Consul? (1)

20. What prolonged struggle had its beginning in the quarrels of Marius and Sulla? what was the result to the Republic? (2)

33d ACADEMIC EXAMINATION.

March 8, 1889.—Time, 9.30 A M. to 12 M., only.

44 credits; necessary to pass, 33.

1. What was the early form of government in Rome? (1)

2. Tell what you know about the (a) Patricians, (b) Plebeians, (c) Tribune, (d) Consul. (4)

3. Give a brief account of the origin of the Comitia Tributa. (2)

4. What was meant by an Agrarian law? who secured the first one? (2)

5. Who compiled the laws of the Twelve Tables? (2)

6. Tell briefly the story of Cincinnatus. (2)

7. Describe the system of Roman roads, and tell something of their effect upon the Republic. (2)

8. Give the immediate cause of the First Punic War. What was its result? (2)

9. Give the name of Rome's first province. (1)

10. In what battle did the Romans finally overthrow Macedonia? What Roman general commanded in this battle? (2)

11. Briefly describe the siege of Numantia. (2)

12. What was the effect of their great conquests upon the character of the Roman people? (2)

13. What was the cause of the Social War? Give the result of this war. (2)

14. Describe the campaign of Pompey against the pirates, giving the cause of the campaign, its length, and the result. (3)

15. What great religious event occurred during the reign of the Emperor Augustus? (1)

16. For what were the following men noted: (a) Juvenal, (b) Seneca, (c) Cato the Censor, (d) Fabius, (e) Caligula? (5)

THE GRACCHI. 17. Of what great movement did the agitations of the Gracchi form a part? (1)

18. What measure was proposed by Tiberius Gracchus? what measure by Caius Gracchus? (2)

19. Briefly describe the death of each of the Gracchi. (2)

20. With which order of the Roman people were the Gracchi allied by birth? with which, by sympathy? (2)

21. Why was the failure of the agitation of the Gracchi of very great significance? (2)

31st Advanced Academic Examination,

June 15, 1888.—Time, 9.30 A. M. to 12 M., only.

48 credits; necessary to pass, 36.

1. Into what three principal classes (or races) may the inhabitants of Italy be divided? To what great race did they belong? (4)

2. Who established the comitia centuriata? How did it differ from the comitia curiata? (2)

3. Who made the first code of Roman law? (1)

4. What king aided the Greek colonies in their war with Rome? What was the result of the war? (2)

5. In what war was Syracuse taken by the Romans? What was the cause of the siege? Give the name of a famous man who was slain, and state the circumstances of his death. (4)

6. Mention five provinces gained by Rome during the period of conquest, 266-133 B.C. (5)

7. Give the effects upon Rome of the Eastern conquests, in regard to literature and morals. (2)

8. What political parties did Marius and Sulla represent? (2)

9. What two foreign wars were conducted by Marius. (2)

10. What was the decisive battle in the civil war between Pompey and Caesar? (1)

11. Who formed the Second Triumvirate? What illustrious man was slain in their proscription? (4)

12. To what one of the Caesars was Seneca tutor? (1)

13. In whose reign occurred the last great persecution of the Christians? (1)

14. Give a brief sketch of the life and character of Constantine? (3)

15. Who was the last Western Roman Emperor? (1)

THE SAMNITE WARS, AND THE RELATIONS OF ROME TO SUBJECT STATES.

16. What caused Rome to bring the First Samnite War to an end? (1)

17. Give a brief account of the battle of the Caudine Forks, and of the treaty made there. (4)

18. What was the result of the battle of Sentinum? Give the terms of the final peace between the Romans and the Samnites. (3)

19. In the Roman State what three rights did Rome reserve for herself? (3)

20. Distinguish between Roman citizens and subjects (or Latins) (2)

30TH ADVANCED ACADEMIC EXAMINATION.

March 2, 1888.—Time, 9.30 A.M. to 12 M., only.

48 credits; necessary to pass, 36.

1. Draw an outline map of Italy, and upon it indicate the location of Rome and sketch the river Tiber and the outline of Latium (6)

2. When was the Republic established, and who were the first Consuls? (3)

3. What was the cause of the first Secession, and what were the two conditions of the return? (3)

4. Give an account of the appointment of the Decemvirs and the powers intrusted to them. (2)

5. Mention two provisions of the Licinian laws or rogations. (2)

6. What part of Italy did the Samnites possess, and what was the cause of the First Samnite War? (2)

7. Give the name of one of the Roman military roads, tell in which direction it led, and what towns were at its extremities. (3)

8. In what locality were most of the contests of the First Punic War? (1)

ANCIENT ROME.

9. Mention one Roman and one Carthaginian general noted in the conduct of the First Punic War. (2)

10. Describe the battle of Cannae, and tell the result of the battle.(2)

11. Mention two reforms or measures favored by the Gracchi.(2)

12. Compare the character of Marius with that of Sulla.(2)

13. Who formed the First Triumvirate, and what element of strength did each contribute to it? (3)

14. What cause was assigned for the assassination of Caesar? (1)

15. Describe in a sentence the character of each of the following: Nero; Trajan. (2)

THE EARLY HISTORY OF ROME.

16. Into what two principal branches were the early Italians divided, and what part of Italy did they occupy? (3)

17. Tell briefly the traditional story of the founding of Rome. (2)

18. What was the first form of government at Rome, and after what was it modelled? (2)

19. How did the Senate differ from the Comitia Curiata in its membership? (2)

20. What authority did the king have, and what duties did the Senate perform? (2)

21. Describe the religion of the early Romans. (1)

29th Advanced Academic Examination.

November 18, 1887.—Time, 9.30 A.M. to 12 M., only.

48 credits; necessary to pass, 36.

1. When was Rome founded? (1)

2. Under what king was the constitution remodelled, and what was the basis of the new constitution? (2)

3. Who was the last king? By whom was the government by kings overturned, and to whom was the power then intrusted? (3)

4. What caused the struggle between the patricians and plebeians, how long did it continue, and how did it result? (3)

5. Give briefly the story of Coriolanus (2)

6. What induced the Gauls to invade Italy 390 B.C., where did they contend with the Roman army, and with what result? (3)

7. Where was Carthage, by what means did it attain its power and wealth, and when did the Romans and Carthaginians first contend in arms? (3)

8. Under what circumstances was Fabius sent against Hannibal, what policy did he pursue, and with what result? (3)

9. Compare Publius Scipio Africanus with Marcus Cato in character and habits. (2)

10. What was the object of Catiline's conspiracy, by what Consul was it defeated, and in what manner? (3)

11. What causes led to the formation of the First Triumvirate? (1)

12. What was the cause of the battle of Actium, and what was its result? (2)

13. Describe the manner in which Octavius Augustus became Emperor, and the character of his reign. (2)

14. By what Emperor was Jerusalem captured, and in what year? (2)

15. Describe the customs of the Romans at meals, and mention some articles used by them for food. (2)

THE GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY, AND ITS EARLY INHABITANTS.

16. Draw a map of Italy, and upon it sketch the Apennine mountains, and the rivers Tiber and Arno. (4)

17. Upon the map indicate the location of the following: Rome, Naples, Tarentum. (3)

18. What three races occupied Italy in the earliest known times, what part of Italy did each occupy, and from which of these were the Latins descended? (7)