Anglo-Saxon Grammar and Exercise Book / with Inflections, Syntax, Selections for Reading, and Glossary

I. HISTORY.

(a) Old English Poetry as a Whole.

Northumbria was the home of Old English poetry. Beginning with Cædmon and his school A.D. 670, Northumbria maintained her poetical supremacy till A.D. 800, seven years before which date the ravages of the Danes had begun. When Alfred ascended the throne of Wessex (871), the Danes had destroyed the seats of learning throughout the whole of Northumbria. As Whitby had been “the cradle of English poetry,” Winchester (Alfred’s capital) became now the cradle of English prose; and the older poems that had survived the fire and sword of the Vikings were translated from the original Northumbrian dialect into the West Saxon dialect. It is, therefore, in the West Saxon dialect that these poems1 have come down to us.

Old English poetry contains in all only about thirty thousand lines; but it includes epic, lyric, didactic, elegiac, and allegorical poems, together with war-ballads, paraphrases, riddles, and charms. Of the five elegiac poems (Wanderer, Seafarer, Ruin, Wife’s Complaint, and Husband’s Message), the Wanderer is the most artistic, and best portrays the gloomy contrast between past happiness and present grief so characteristic of the Old English lyric.

Old English literature has no love poems. The central themes of its poets are battle and bereavement, with a certain grim resignation on the part of the hero to the issues of either. The movement of the thought is usually abrupt, there being a noticeable poverty of transitional particles, or connectives, “which,” says Ten Brink, “are the cement of sentence-structure.”

(b) Beowulf.

The greatest of all Old English poems is the epic, Beowulf.2 It consists of more than three thousand lines, and probably assumed approximately its present form in Northumbria about A.D. 700. It is a crystallization of continental myths; and, though nothing is said of England, the story is an invaluable index to the social, political, and ethical ideals of our Germanic ancestors before and after they settled along the English coast. It is most poetical, and its testimony is historically most valuable, in the character-portraits that it contains. The fatalism that runs through it, instead of making the characters weak and less human, serves at times rather to dignify and elevate them. “Fate,” says Beowulf (l. 572), recounting his battle with the sea-monsters, “often saves an undoomed man if his courage hold out.”

“The ethical essence of this poetry,” says Ten Brink, “lies principally in the conception of manly virtue, undismayed courage, the stoical encounter with death, silent submission to fate, in the readiness to help others, in the clemency and liberality of the prince toward his thanes, and the self-sacrificing loyalty with which they reward him.”

Note 1.—Many different interpretations have been put upon the story of Beowulf (for argument of story, see texts). Thus Müllenhoff sees in Grendel the giant-god of the storm-tossed equinoctial sea, while Beowulf is the Scandinavian god Freyr, who in the spring drives back the sea and restores the land. Laistner finds the prototype of Grendel in the noxious exhalations that rise from the Frisian coast-marshes during the summer months; Beowulf is the wind-hero, the autumnal storm-god, who dissipates the effluvia.

II. STRUCTURE.

(a) Style.

In the structure of Old English poetry the most characteristic feature is the constant repetition of the idea (sometimes of the thought) with a corresponding variation of phrase, or epithet. When, for example, the Queen passes into the banquet hall in Beowulf, she is designated at first by her name, Wealhþēow; she is then described in turn as cwēn Hrōðgāres (Hrothgar’s queen), gold-hroden (the gold-adorned), frēolīc wīf (the noble woman), ides Helminga (the Helmings’ lady), bēag-hroden cwēn (the ring-adorned queen), mōde geþungen (the high-spirited), and gold-hroden frēolīcu folc-cwēn (the gold-adorned, noble folk-queen).

And whenever the sea enters largely into the poet’s verse, not content with simple (uncompounded) words (such as sǣ, lagu, holm, strēam, męre, etc.), he will use numerous other equivalents (phrases or compounds), such as waþema gebind (the commingling of waves), lagu-flōd (the sea-flood), lagu-strǣt (the sea-street), swan-rād (the swan-road), etc. These compounds are usually nouns, or adjectives and participles used in a sense more appositive than attributive.

It is evident, therefore, that this abundant use of compounds, or periphrastic synonyms, grows out of the desire to repeat the idea in varying language. It is to be observed, also, that the Old English poets rarely make any studied attempt to balance phrase against phrase or clause against clause. Theirs is a repetition of idea, rather than a parallelism of structure.

Note 1.—It is impossible to tell how many of these synonymous expressions had already become stereotyped, and were used, like many of the epithets in the Iliad and Odyssey, purely as padding. When, for example, the poet tells us that at the most critical moment Beowulf’s sword failed him, adding in the same breath, īren ǣr-gōd (matchless blade), we conclude that the bard is either nodding or parroting.

(b) Meter.

[Re-read § 10, (3).]

Primary Stress.

Old English poetry is composed of certain rhythmically ordered combinations of accented and unaccented syllables. The accented syllable (the arsis) is usually long, and will be indicated by the macron with the acute accent over it (–́); when short, by the breve with the same accent (˘́). The unaccented syllable or syllables (the thesis) may be long or short, and will be indicated by the oblique cross (×).

Secondary Stress.

A secondary accent, or stress, is usually put upon the second member of compound and derivative nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. This will be indicated by the macron with the grave accent, if the secondary stress falls on a long syllable (–̀); by the breve with the same accent, if the secondary stress falls on a short syllable (˘̀). Nouns:

Hrōðgāres (–́–̀×), fēondgrāpum (–́–̀×), frēomǣgum (–́–̀×), Ēast-Dęna (–́˘̀×), Helminga (–́–̀×), Scyldinga (–́–̀×), ānhaga (–́˘̀×), Ecgþēowes (–́–̀×), sinc-fato (–́˘̀×).

Adjectives:1

ǣghwylcne (–́–̀×), þrīsthȳdig (–́–̀×), gold-hroden (–́˘̀×), drēorigne (–́–̀×), gyldenne (–́–̀×), ōðerne (–́–̀×), gǣstlīcum (–́–̀×), wynsume (–́˘̀×), ǣnigne (–́–̀×).

Adverbs:2

unsōfte (–́–̀×), heardlīce (–́–̀×), sęmninga (–́–̀×).

The Old English poets place also a secondary accent upon the ending of present participles (-ende), and upon the penultimate of weak verbs of the second class (§ 130), provided the root-syllable is long.3 Present participles:

slǣpendne (–́–̀×), wīs-hycgende (–́–́–̀×), flēotendra (–́–̀×), hrēosende (–́–̀×).

Weak verbs:

swynsode (–́˘̀×), þancode (–́˘̀×), wānigean (–́˘̀×), scēawian (–́˘̀×), scēawige (–́˘̀×), hlīfian (–́˘̀×).

Resolved Stress.

A short accented syllable followed in the same word by an unaccented syllable (usually short also) is equivalent to one long accented syllable (˘́× = –́). This is known as a resolved stress, and will be indicated thus, ˘́͜×;

hæleða (˘́͜͜××), guman (˘́͜×), Gode (˘́͜×), sęle-ful (˘́͜××), ides (˘́͜×), fyrena (˘́͜××), maðelode (˘́͜ע̀×), hogode (˘́͜××), mægen-ęllen (˘́͜×–̀×), hige-þihtigne (˘́͜×–́–̀×), Metudes (˘́͜××), lagulāde (˘́͜×–̀×), unlyfigendes (–́˘́͜×–̀×), biforan (ע́͜×), forþolian (ע́͜××), baðian (˘́͜××), worolde (˘́͜–×).

Resolution of stress may also attend secondary stresses:

sinc-fato (–́˘̀͜×), dryht-sęle (–́˘̀͜×), ferðloca (–́˘̀͜×), forðwege (–́˘̀͜×).

The Normal Line.

Every normal line of Old English poetry has four primary accents, two in the first half-line and two in the second half-line. These half-lines are separated by the cesura and united by alliteration, the alliterative letter being found in the first stressed syllable of the second half-line. This syllable, therefore, gives the cue to the scansion of the whole line. It is also the only alliterating syllable in the second half-line. The first half-line, however, usually has two alliterating syllables, but frequently only one (the ratio being about three to two in the following selections). When the first half-line contains but one alliterating syllable, that syllable marks the first stress, rarely the second. The following lines are given in the order of their frequency:

Any initial vowel or diphthong may alliterate with any other initial vowel or diphthong; but a consonant requires the same consonant, except st, sp, and sc, each of which alliterates only with itself.

Remembering, now, that either half-line (especially the second) may begin with several unaccented syllables (these syllables being known in types A, D, and E as the anacrusis), but that neither half-line can end with more than one unaccented syllable, the student may begin at once to read and properly accentuate Old English poetry. It will be found that the alliterative principle does not operate mechanically, but that the poet employs it for the purpose of emphasizing the words that are really most important. Sound is made subservient to sense.

When, from the lack of alliteration, the student is in doubt as to what word to stress, let him first get the exact meaning of the line, and then put the emphasis on the word or words that seem to bear the chief burden of the poet’s thought.

Note 1.—A few lines, rare or abnormal in their alliteration or lack of alliteration, may here be noted. In the texts to be read, there is one line with no alliteration: Wanderer 58; three of the type a ··· b | a ··· b: Beowulf 654, 830, 2746; one of the type a ··· a | b ··· a: Beowulf 2744; one of the type a ··· a | b ··· c: Beowulf 2718; and one of the type a ··· b | c ··· a: Beowulf 2738.

The Five Types.

By an exhaustive comparative study of the metrical unit in Old English verse, the half-line, Professor Eduard Sievers,4 of the University of Leipzig, has shown that there are only five types, or varieties, employed. These he classifies as follows, the perpendicular line serving to separate the so-called feet, or measures:

1.	A		–́ × | –́ ×
2.	B		× –́ | × –́
3.	C		× –́ | –́ ×
4.	D		D1 –́ | –́ –̀ × D2 –́ | –́ × –̀
5.	E		E1 –́ –̀ × | –́ E2 –́ × –̀ | –́

It will be seen (1) that each half-line contains two, and only two, feet; (2) that each foot contains one, and only one, primary stress; (3) that A is trochaic, B iambic; (4) that C is iambic-trochaic; (5) that D and E consist of the same feet but in inverse order.

The Five Types Illustrated.

[All the illustrations, as hitherto, are taken from the texts to be read. The figures prefixed indicate whether first or second half-line is cited. B = Beowulf; W = Wanderer.]

1. Type A, –́ × | –́ ×

Two or more unaccented syllables (instead of one) may intervene between the two stresses, but only one may follow the last stress. If the thesis in either foot is the second part of a compound it receives, of course, a secondary stress.

(2)	ful gesealde, B. 616,	–́ ×	| –́ ×
(1)	wīdre gewindan, B. 764,	–́ × ×	| –́ ×
(1)5	Gemunde þā sē gōda, B. 759,	× | –́ × × ×	| –́ ×
(1)5	swylce hē on ealder-dagum, B. 758,	× × × ×	| –́ × | ˘́ ×
(1)	ȳþde swā þisne eardgeard, W. 85,	–́ × × × ×	| –́ –̀
(1)	wīs-fæst wordum, B. 627,	–́ –̀	| –́ ×
(1)	gryre-lēoð galan, B. 787,	˘́͜× –̀	| ˘́ ×
(2)	sǫmod ætgædre, W. 39,	˘́͜× ×	| –́ ×
(1)	duguðe ǫnd geogoðe, B. 622,	˘́͜× × ×	| ˘́͜× ×
(1)	fǣger fold-bold, B. 774,	–́ ×	| –́ –̀
(1)	atelīc ęgesa, B. 785,	˘́͜× –̀	| ˘́͜× ×
(2)	goldwine mīnne, W. 22,	–́ ˘̀͜×	| –́ ×
(1)	ęgesan þēon [> *þīhan: § 118], B. 2737,	˘́͜× ×	| –́ ×

Note.—Rare forms of A are –́ –̀ × | –́ × (does not occur in texts), –́ –̀ × | –́ –̀ (occurs once, B. 781 (1)), and –́ × –̀ | –́ × (once, B. 2743 (1)).

2. Type B, × –́ | × –́

Two, but not more than two, unaccented syllables may intervene between the stresses. The type of B most frequently occurring is × × –́ | × –́. 

(1)	ǫnd þā frēolīc wīf, B. 616,	× × –́	| × –́
(2)	hē on lust geþeah, B. 619,	× × –́	| × –́
(2)	þā se æðeling gīong, B. 2716,	× × ˘́͜×	| × –́
(2)	seah on ęnta geweorc, B. 2718,	× × –́	| × × –́
(1)	ofer flōda genipu, B. 2809,	× × –́	| × × ˘́͜×
(1)	forþam mē wītan ne þearf, B. 2742,	× × × –́	| × × –́
(2)	þaes þe hire se willa gelamp, B. 627,	× × × × × –́	| × × –́
(1)	forþon ne mæg weorþan wīs, W. 64,	× × × × –́	| × –́
(1)	Nǣfre ic ǣnegum [= ǣn’gum] męn, B. 656,	× × × –́	| × –́

Note.—In the last half-line Sievers substitutes the older form ǣngum, and supposes elision of the e in Nǣfre (= Nǣfr-ic: ××–́ | ×–́).

3. Type C, × –́ | –́ ×

The conditions of this type are usually satisfied by compound and derivative words, and the second stress (not so strong as the first) is frequently on a short syllable. The two arses rarely alliterate. As in B, two unaccented syllables in the first thesis are more common than one.

(1)	þæt hēo on ǣnigne, B. 628,	× × × –́	| –́ ×
(1)	þæt ic ānunga, B. 635,	× × –́	| –́ ×
(2)	ēode gold-hroden, B. 641,	× × –́	| ˘́ ×
(1)	gemyne mǣrðo, B. 660,	× ˘́͜×	| –́ ×
(1)	on þisse meodu-healle, B. 639,	× × × ˘́͜×	| –́ ×
(2)	æt brimes nosan, B. 2804,	× ˘́͜×	| ˘́ ×
(2)	æt Wealhþéon [= -þēowan], B. 630,	× –́	| –́ ×
(1)	geond lagulāde, W. 3,	× ˘́͜×	| –́ ×
(1)	Swā cwæð eardstapa, W. 6,	× × –́	| ˘́ ×
(2)	ēalā byrnwiga, W. 94,	× × –́	| ˘́ ×
(2)	nō þǣr fela bringeð, W. 54,	× × ˘́͜×	| –́ ×

4. Type D,		D1 –́ | –́ –̀ ×
		D2 –́ | –́ × –̀

Both types of D may take one unaccented syllable between the two primary stresses (–́ × | –́ –̀ ×, –́ × | –́ × –̀). The secondary stress in D¹ falls usually on the second syllable of a compound or derivative word, and this syllable (as in C) is frequently short.

(a) D¹ –́ | –́ –̀ ×

(1)	cwēn Hrōðgāres, B. 614,	–́	| –́ –̀ ×
(2)	dǣl ǣghwylcne, B. 622,	–́	| –́ –̀ ×
(1)	Bēowulf maðelode, B. 632,	–́ ×	| ˘́͜× ˘̀ ×
(2)	slāt unwearnum, B. 742,	–́	| –́ –̀ ×
(1)	wrāþra wælsleahta, W. 7,	–́ ×	| –́ –̀ ×
(1)	wōd wintercearig [= wint’rcearig], W. 24,	–́	| –́ ˘̀ ×
(1)	sōhte sęle drēorig, W. 25,	–́ ×	| ˘́͜× –̀ ×
(1)	ne sōhte searo-nīðas, B. 2739,	× | –́ ×	| ˘́͜× –̀ ×

Note.—There is one instance in the texts (B. 613, (1)) of apparent –́ × × | –́ ˘̀ ×: word wǣron wynsume. (The triple alliteration has no significance. The sense, besides, precludes our stressing wǣron.) The difficulty is avoided by bringing the line under the A type: –́ × × | –́ ˘́͜×.

(b) D² –́ | –́ × –̀

(2)	Forð nēar ætstōp, B. 746,	–́	| –́ × –̀
(2)	eorl furður stōp, B. 762,	–́	| –́ × –̀
(2)	Dęnum eallum wearð, B. 768,	˘́͜×	| –́ × –̀
(1)	grētte Gēata lēod, B. 626,	–́ ×	| –́ × –̀
(1)	ǣnig yrfe-weard, B. 2732,	–́ ×	| –́ × –̀
(1)	hrēosan hrīm and snāw, W. 48,	–́ ×	| –́ × –̀
(2)	swimmað eft on weg, W. 53,	–́ ×	| –́ × –̀

Very rarely is the thesis in the second foot expanded.

(2)	þegn ungemete till, B. 2722,	–́	| –́ × × × –̀
(1)	hrūsan heolster biwrāh, W. 23,	–́ ×	| –́ × × –̀

5. Type E,		E1 –́ –̀ × | –́
		E2 –́ × –̀ | –́

The secondary stress in E¹ falls frequently on a short syllable, as in D¹.

(a) E¹ –́ –̀ × | –́

(1)	wyrmlīcum fāh, W. 98,	–́ –̀ ×	| –́
(2)	medo-ful ætbær, B. 625,	˘́͜× ˘̀ ×	| –́
(1)	sǣ-bāt gesæt, B. 634,	–́ –̀ ×	| –́
(1)	sige-folca swēg, B. 645,	˘́͜× –̀ ×	| –́
(2)	Norð-Dęnum stōd, B. 784,	–́ ˘̀ ×	| –́
(1)	fēond-grāpum fæst, B. 637,	–́ –̀ ×	| –́
(2)	wyn eal gedrēas, W. 36,	–́ –̀ ×	| –́
(2)	feor oft gemǫn, W. 90,	–́ –̀ ×	| –́

As in D², the thesis in the first foot is very rarely expanded.

(1)	wīn-ærnes geweald, B. 655,	–́ –̀ × ×	| –́
(1)	Hafa nū ǫnd geheald, B. 659,	˘́͜× –̀ × ×	| –́
(1)	searo-þǫncum besmiðod, B. 776,	˘́͜× –̀ × ×	| ˘́͜×

(b) E² –́ × –̀ | –́

This is the rarest of all types. It does not occur in the texts, there being but one instance of this type (l. 2437 (2)), and that doubtful, in the whole of Beowulf.

Abnormal Lines.

The lines that fall under none of the five types enumerated are comparatively few. They may be divided into two classes, (1) hypermetrical lines, and (2) defective lines.

(1) Hypermetrical Lines.

Each hypermetrical half-line has usually three stresses, thus giving six stresses to the whole line instead of two. These lines occur chiefly in groups, and mark increased range and dignity in the thought. Whether the half-line be first or second, it is usually of the A type without anacrusis. To this type belong the last five lines of the Wanderer. Lines 92 and 93 are also unusually long, but not hypermetrical. The first half-line of 65 is hypermetrical, a fusion of A and C, consisting of (–́××ע́͜– | –́×).

(2) Defective Lines.

The only defective lines in the texts are B. 748 and 2715 (the second half-line in each). As they stand, these half-lines would have to be scanned thus:

rǣhte ongēan	–́ ×	| × –́
bealo-nīð wēoll	˘́͜× –̀	| –́

Sievers emends as follows:

rǣhte tōgēanes	–́ × ×	| –́ ×	= A
bealo-nīðe wēoll	˘́͜× –́ ×	| –́	= E1

These defective half-lines are made up of syntactic combinations found on almost every page of Old English prose. That they occur so rarely in poetry is strong presumptive evidence, if further evidence were needed, in favor of the adequacy of Sievers’ five-fold classification.

Note.—All the lines that could possibly occasion any difficulty to the student have been purposely cited as illustrations under the different types. If these are mastered, the student will find it an easy matter to scan the lines that remain.