Architecture

2.  See Hautecœur, L., Rome et la renaissance de l’antiquité à la fin du XVIII^e siècle, Paris, 1912. However, the deeper background of theory was French, not Roman. Unhappily the brevity with which this whole matter must be treated here, where it is merely prefatory to an account of nineteenth- and twentieth-century architecture, makes it impossible to discuss such French theorists of the early eighteenth century as J.-F. Félibien (1656-1733), A.-L. Cordemoy, and A.-F. Frézier (1682-1773); even Laugier appears somewhat out of context, since he was active not in Rome but in France. Hautecœur in Histoire de l’architecture classique, vols III and IV, and Kaufmann in Architecture in the Age of Reason—particularly in Chapter XI—elaborate this background of theory in France centring round the Cours d’architecture ..., Paris, 1770-7, of J.-F. Blondel (1705-74).

3.  See Harris, J., ‘Robert Mylne at the Academy of St Luke’, Architectural Review, CXXX (1951), 341-52.

4.  Monographs on major architects will be found listed alphabetically by architect in the Bibliography and are not referenced from the text.

5.  The changing attitudes towards the Greek Doric order provide a measure of the rise of Romantic Classicism. It is noteworthy that Soufflot was one of the first to make drawings of the very archaic Doric of Paestum, but it never occurred to him to emulate it in his own work. See Pevsner, N., and Lang, S., ‘Apollo or Baboon’, Architectural Review, CIV (1948), 271-9.

6.  Winckelmann’s major work is the Geschichte der Kunst des Altertums, 2 vols, Dresden, 1764.

7.  Interest in Egyptian forms can be traced all the way back through the Baroque period to the early Renaissance, but it undoubtedly increased after 1750 and lasted well into the next century. See Pevsner, N., and Lang, S., ‘The Egyptian Revival’, Architectural Review, CXIX (1956), 242-54. For a remarkable, rather late (1838-41) example of an ‘Egyptian’ mill, see Bonser, K. J., ‘Marshall’s Mill, Holbeck, Leeds’, Architectural Review, CXXVII (1960), 280-2. In the second quarter of the nineteenth century Egyptian forms were most likely to be used, especially in America, for prisons and cemetery accessories.

8.  Adam studied, with the assistance of the French pensionnaire C.-L. Clérisseau (1722-1820), the Late Roman ruins of Diocletian’s Palace at Spalatro in 1757, and began his brilliant career in London two years later with the Admiralty Screen in Whitehall. See Adam, R., Ruins of the Palace of the Emperor Diocletian at Spalatro, London, 1764, and Fleming, J., Robert Adam and his Circle, London, 1962.

9.  The present dome is a relatively late emendation; the original crowning feature was much less severe. Soufflot sent a pupil named Roche to London to make measured drawings of St Paul’s in 1776, the year before he prepared this design.

In general, the Panthéon appears much more Romantic Classical today than what Soufflot actually built. The towers which once rose over the corners of the portico—in any case disapproved by Soufflot—were removed by Antoine Quatremère de Quincy (1755-1849) in 1791, and he also filled up the windows that originally cut into the plain wall surfaces. The murals are all of the nineteenth century.

10.  Actually many of the spans are much too great to be covered by single stones and the entablatures are really flat arches. There is also considerable use of iron.

11.  See Petzet, M., Soufflot’s Sainte Geneviève und der französische Kirchenbau des 18. Jahrhunderts, Berlin, 1961.

12.  See Rosenau, H., ‘George Dance the Younger’, Journal of the Royal Institute of British Architects, LIV (1947), 502-7. Even more significant of developing Romantic Classical taste at this point was the character of the designs in Peyre, M.-J., Livre sur l’architecture, Paris, 1765.

13.  See Rosenau, H. (ed.), Boullée’s Treatise on Architecture, London, 1953; and Boullée, E.-L., Mémoire sur ... la Bibliothèque du Roi ..., [Paris] 1785.

14.  This more classical arrangement was first proposed in the 1760s by Pierre Patte (1723-1814), a theorist in the Blondel tradition, on the analogy of Palladio’s theatre in Vicenza.

15.  This is not true, however, of much of his executed work at Arc-et-Senans which has heavily plastic roofs of various shapes.

16.  So did Friedrich Gilly in Germany and—according to Kaufmann—Valadier in Italy.

18.  See Britton, J., Illustrations of Fonthill Abbey, London, 1823; Rutter, J., An Illustrated History and Description of Fonthill Abbey, Shaftesbury, 1823; and Storer, J., A Description of Fonthill Abbey, Wiltshire, London, 1812. The most extensive modern account of the building of Fonthill Abbey is given by Brockman, H. A. N., The Caliph of Fonthill, London [1956].

19.  See Pevsner, N., ‘The Genesis of the Picturesque’, Architectural Review, XCVI (1944), 139-46, and Pevsner, N., ‘Richard Payne Knight’, Art Bulletin, XXXI (1949), 293-320.

20.  Hussey in The Picturesque lists many of these books and gives good examples of their illustrations.

21.  First, that is, in this period. The columnar Monument in the City of London by Robert Hooke, commemorating the Great Fire, dates from the 1670s.

22.  See Telford, T., An Account of the Improvements of the Port of London, London, 1801. Splendid later examples also survive in Liverpool, built by the Corporation engineer Jesse Hartley (1780-1860); see Waldron, J., ‘Measured Drawings of the Albert Dock Warehouses in Liverpool’, Architectural History, IV (1961), 103-16.

23.  See Kimball, F., Thomas Jefferson and the First Monument of the Classic Revival in America, Harrisburg, 1915.

24.  See Kimball, F., ‘The Genesis of the White House’, Century Magazine, February 1918.

25.  See Brown, G., History of the United States Capitol, 2 vols, Washington, 1900-3.

26.  See Kimball, F., ‘Origin of the Plan of Washington, D.C.’, Architectural Review (New York), VII (1918), 41-5; and Kite, E., L’Enfant and Washington, Baltimore, 1929.

27.  See Davison, C. V., ‘Maximilien and Eliza Godefroy’, ‘Maximilien Godefroy’, Maryland Historical Magazine, March, September 1934.

28.  See Alexander, R. L., ‘The Public Memorial and Godefroy’s Battle Monument’, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, XVII (1958), 19-24.

29.  See Hislop, C., and Larrabee, H. A., ‘Joseph-Jacques Ramée and the Building of North and South College’, Union College Alumni Monthly, February 1938.

30.  The idea probably originated with Soufflot, who had earlier proposed a similar plan for the cathedral of Rennes.

31.  See Blondel, J.-F., Plan, coupe, et élévations du nouveau marché Saint Germain, Paris, 1816, and Délespine, P.-J., Marché des Blancs Manteaux, Paris, 1827.

32.  See Chierici, G., La Reggia di Caserta, Rome, 1937; and Mongiello, G., La Reggia di Caserta, Caserta, 1954.

33.  See Hautecœur, L., L’Architecture classique à Saint Pétersbourg à la fin du XVIII^e siècle, Paris, 1912.

34.  See Loukomski, G., Charles Cameron, London, 1943.

35.  See Thomon, T. de, Recueil des principaux monuments construits à Saint Pétersbourg, Petersburg, 1806; repeated in his Traité de peinture, Paris, 1809; and Loukomski, G., ‘Thomas de Thomon’, Apollo, XLII (1945), 297 ff.

36.  See Lancere, N., ‘Adrien Zakharov and the Admiralty at Petersburg’ (in Russian), Starye Gody, (1911), 3-64.

37.  Kaufmann, who illustrates the Belanger project in Architecture in the Age of Reason, figure 169, dates it around 1808 on the ground that slaughterhouses first began to be built in Paris in that year. It is extremely unlikely, of course, that Hansen ever saw this project; but the similarity of his tower to Belanger’s indicates how closely he was in tune with his French contemporaries. In any case similar towers are to be found in the projects published by Durand in his Précis of 1802-5, which Hansen must have known (see Chapter 2).

39.  Durand was already well known as the compiler of the Recueil et parallèle des édifices en tout genre, anciens et modernes, Paris, 1800, a curious work in which the drawings of important buildings of all periods are freely modified to bring them into conformity with the author’s modular theories of proportion. This is conventionally known as ‘Le grand Durand’.

40.  Rondelet, J. B., Traité théorique et pratique de l’art de bâtir, 4 vols, Paris, 1802-17. There were several later editions. From 1806 Rondelet taught at the École Spéciale d’Architecture, which was shortly afterwards merged with the École Polytechnique.

41.  French designs of this period for houses were provided in profusion in the publications of J. C. Krafft. See Krafft, J. C., and Ransonette, N., Plans, coupes, élévations des plus belles maisons et des hôtels construits à Paris et dans les environs, Paris [c. 1802]; reprint, Paris, 1909; and Krafft, J. C., Recueil d’architecture civile, Paris, 1812; later ed., 1829. Krafft, J. C., and Thiollet, F., Choix des plus jolies maisons de Paris et de ses environs, édifices et monuments publics, Paris, 1849, may also be mentioned here although very much later. It is significant of the international availability of the earliest work listed here that it was provided with texts in French, English, and German.

42.  Klenze, L. von, Walhalla in artistischer und technischer Beziehung, Munich, 1842.

43.  See Hitchcock, H.-R., Early Museum Architecture, Hartford, 1934.

44.  Grandjean de Montigny, A.-H.-V., and Famin, A.-P.-Ste-M., Architecture toscane, Paris, 1815.

45.  See Klenze, L. von, Anweisung der Architektur des christlichen Kultus, Munich, 1834.

46.  See Möllinger, K., Elemente des Rundbogenstiles, 2nd ed., Munich, 1848. It is convenient to retain the German term for this very Germanic round-arched style, even though it flourished in several countries besides Germany (see below in this chapter for Scandinavia, and Chapter 5 for America).

47.  See Hübsch, H., Die altchristlichen Kirchen nach den Baudenkmalen und älteren Beschreibungen, 2 vols, Karlsruhe, 1862-3.

48.  Durand, Précis, II, plate 13.

49.  See Häberlin, C. L., Sanssouci, Potsdam und Umgebung, Berlin and Potsdam, 1855; Poensgen, G., Die Bauten Friedrich Wilhelms IV in Potsdam, Potsdam, 1930; Huth, H., Der Park von Sanssouci, Berlin, 1929; Kania, H., Potsdamer Baukunst, Berlin, 1926; Potsdam. Staats- und Bürgerbauten, Berlin, 1939; and Hitchcock, H.-R., ‘Romantic Architecture of Potsdam’, International Studio, 99 (1931), 46-9.

50.  See Sievers, J., Das Palais des Prinzen Karl von Preussen, Berlin, 1928.

51.  Notably Séheult, F.-L., Recueil d’architecture dessiné et mesuré en Italie ... dans 1791-93, Paris, 1821.

52.  See Persius, L., Architektonische Entwürfe für den Umbau vorhandener Gebäude, Potsdam, 1849; Architektonische Ausführungen, Berlin [1860?]; and Fleetwood Hesketh, R. and P., ‘Ludwig Persius of Potsdam’, Architects Journal, LXVIII (1928), 77-87, 113-20.

53.  Ettlinger, L., ‘A German Architect’s Visit to England in 1826’, Architectural Review, XCVII (1945), 131-4.

54.  See Poensgen, G., Schloss Babelsberg, Berlin, 1929.

55.  See Frölich, M., and Sperlich, H. G., Georg Moller, Baumeister der Romantik, Darmstadt, 1959.

56.  See Semper, G., Das königliche Hoftheater zu Dresden, Brunswick, 1849.

57.  Gärtner’s design for the Palace owes a good deal to a project prepared by Klenze for a palace on the Kerameikos hill which was never begun. Fortunately Schinkel’s more ambitious project for a palace on the Akropolis was also not carried out.

The digging away of the ground, which originally sloped up to the Palace above the square, and the introduction in the 1930s of the present retaining wall with the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier have diminished somewhat the effectiveness of the front of the Palace.

58.  See Amodeo, A., ‘La Giovinezza di Pietro Nobile’, ‘La Maturità di Pietro Nobile’, L’Architettura, I (1955), 49-52; 378-84.

59.  See Thorvaldsens Museum, Copenhagen, 1953.

60.  See Hekker, H. C., ‘De Nederlandse Bouwkunst in het Begin van de Negentiende Eeuw’, Bulletin van de Kon. Ned. Oudh. Bond, IV (1951), 1-28.

62.  Three pieces only of the enamelled lava decoration were put in place; owing to the ensuing outcry they were soon removed.

63.  Hittorff and other architects of his generation such as Henri Labrouste and Duban, who supported his proposal to revive the external polychromy they had noted on the Classical temples of Sicily, were closer in fact to Ingres than to Delacroix. Ingres in 1828 backed Labrouste’s controversial rendering of the Paestum temples showing external colour. Duban, one of the first to introduce polychrome decoration—the plaques of enamelled lava used in the entrance courtyard of the École des Beaux-Arts are his—was a close friend and on occasion a collaborator of Ingres. Hittorff collected paintings by Ingres and assisted him with the architectural backgrounds of his pictures, though that in the ‘Stratonice’, which gives perhaps the best idea of the sort of polychromy intended by these architects, was supplied by Victor Baltard.

64.  Actually the original paintwork on the beams and panels of the vestibules of the Gare du Nord is still there, but so dulled and begrimed that one hardly notices it. To the twentieth century the remarkable roof of Hittorff’s Rotonde des Panoramas in the Champs Élysées of 1836 would be, if extant, of more interest, since it was suspended from iron cables.

65.  As has been noted in Chapter 2, both de Chateauneuf and Meuron studied with Leclerc.

66.  The history of this project is very complicated. As might be surmised from its character, a design was at one point prepared by Gilbert, the principal Louis Philippe architect for this sort of work. The actual construction of the Hôtel Dieu by Diet followed only after a decade of changes of plan, yet the executed work probably incorporates something of Gilbert’s design; in any case, what was built is still wholly in the spirit of Gilbert’s Louis Philippe work and not at all in that of the Second Empire (see Chapter 8). Diet was Gilbert’s son-in-law.

67.  Begun by John Harvey, continued by Thomas Hardwick, and completed by Sir Robert Smirke.

68.  See Venditti, A., Architettura neoclassica a Napoli, Naples, 1961.

69.  See Missirini, M., Del Tempio eretto in Possagno da Antonio Canova, Venice, 1833. Some give credit to Selva, but not Bassi his biographer. See also Meeks, C. L. V., ‘Pantheon Paradigm’, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, XIX (1960), 135-44.

70.  See Falconetti, A., Il Caffè Pedrocchi, dagherrotipo artistico descrittivo, Padua, 1847; and Cimegotto, C., and others, [Centenary volume on the Caffè Pedrocchi], Padua, 1931.

71.  See Montferrand, A.-R. de, L’Église cathédrale de Saint-Isaac, description architecturale, pittoresque, et historique, Saint-Pétersbourg, 1845.

73.  See Note ^[17], Chapter 1. The new interiors were built in 1818; the front and side façades were rebuilt in 1823.

74.  St Pancras is really based on Gibbs’s St Martin’s-in-the-Fields as regards the exterior; but all the features have, so to say, been translated into the Greek of the Erechtheum. See Inwood, W. and H. W., St Pancras New Church. Specifications ..., London, 1819; and Inwood, H. W., The Erechtheion at Athens, London, 1827.

75.  See Smith, H. C., Buckingham Palace, London, 1931.

The palatial character of Cumberland Terrace is due to the fact that it faced the site of an intended summer palace in the Park planned for George IV but never even begun.

76.  See Pevsner, N., ‘British Museum 1753-1953’, Architectural Review, CXIII (1953), 179-82.

77.  See Rolt, L. T. C., George and Robert Stephenson, London, 1960.

78.  See Fort, M., ‘Francis Goodwin, 1784-1835’, Architectural History, I (1958), 61-72.

79.  See Whiffen, M., The Architecture of Sir Charles Barry in Manchester and Neighbourhood, Manchester, 1950.

80.  See Dobson, J. J., Memoir of John Dobson, London, 1885.

81.  In one sense the Baths of Caracalla provided Elmes’s model, since the size of the great interior there was intentionally exceeded here; in another sense, this was a grandiose development of Wren’s relatively modest interior of St James’s, Piccadilly. Just as Gibbs was translated into Greek by the Inwoods at St Pancras’, Wren was translated into Latin here, but with less precision of vocabulary.

82.  See Parker, C., Villa Rustica, 3 vols, London, 1832, 1833, 1841; 2nd ed., London, 1848.

84.  See Haviland, J. A Description of Haviland’s Design for the New Penitentiary ..., Philadelphia, 1824; Anon., A Description of the Eastern Penitentiary ..., Philadelphia, 1830; Crawford, W., Report on the Penitentiaries of the United States, London, 1834; Demetz, F.-A., and Blouet, A.-G., Rapport sur les penitenciers des États Unis, Paris, 1837; and Markus, T. A., ‘Pattern of the Law; Bentham’s Panopticon Scheme’, Architectural Review, CXVI (1954), 251-6.

85.  See Haviland, J., The Builder’s Assistant, 3 vols, Philadelphia, 1818-21—the first to include plates of the Greek orders; 2nd ed., Philadelphia, 1830; Benjamin, A., The American Builder’s Companion, Boston, 1827 (the first edition is of 1806, but Greek orders were not included until this latest edition); The Practical House Carpenter, Boston, 1830, with later editions to 1857; Practice of Architecture, New York, 1833, with later editions to 1851; Elements of Architecture, Boston, 1843, 2nd ed., 1849; The Builder’s Guide, Boston, 1839, with later editions to the Civil War; Lafever, M., The Young Builder’s General Instructor, Newark, 1829; The Modern Builder’s Guide, New York, 1833, with later editions to 1855; The Beauties of Modern Architecture, New York, 1835, with later editions to 1855; The Architectural Instructor, New York, 1856; Shaw, E., Civil Architecture, Boston, 1830, with later editions to 1855; and Hills, C., The Builder’s Guide, Hartford, 1834, with later editions to 1847.

86.  See Willard, S., Plans and Sections of the Obelisk on Bunker’s Hill, Boston, 1843.

87.  See Mills, R., The American Pharos; or, Lighthouse Guide, Washington, 1832; and Waterworks for the Metropolitan City of Washington, Washington, 1853.

88.  See Thayer, R., History, Organization and Functions of the Office of the Supervising Architect of the Treasury Department, Washington, 1886; and Strobridge, T. R., ‘Archives of the Supervising Architect—Treasury Department’, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, XX (1961), 198-9. See also Overby, O., ‘Ammi B. Young in the Connecticut Valley’, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, XIX (1960), 119-23.

89.  See O’Neal, W. B., Jefferson’s Buildings at the University of Virginia, I, Charlottesville, 1960. Like the hill-top siting of Monticello, Jefferson’s own nearby house—begun before the American Revolution and finally completed only in 1808—this provision of an open end towards the view illustrates his active response to the ideals of the Picturesque. For Monticello, moreover, drawings of Gothick garden fabricks exist. The fact that McKim, Mead & White blocked the view at the bottom of Jefferson’s layout with a new building in the twentieth century is curious evidence of the lack of understanding of the essential qualities of the architecture and planning of this period on the part of even the most sophisticated ‘traditional’ architects—men who professed the greatest admiration for the work of such predecessors as Jefferson and yet proceeded to destroy its essence whenever the opportunity arose!

90.  From the time of Latrobe’s Bank of 1798 the Greek temple paradigm for public buildings characteristically and quite inconsistently included vaulted interiors for protection against fire.

91.  In Nicholson, Peter, The Carpenter’s Guide, London, 1849. See also Walter, T. U., Report(s) of the Architect of the Girard College ... [Philadelphia, 1834-50].

92.  Once more, as with Latrobe and Mills, the importance of Strickland’s work as an engineer should at least be noted. The principal publications of the period in this domain are his Reports on the Canals, Railways, Roads and other Subjects, Philadelphia, 1826, and his Reports, Specifications and Estimates of Public Works in the United States, London, 1841.

93.  The history of the building is so complex that it is difficult to know to whom the credit should be assigned for its distinguished design. The competition held in 1838 was won by Walter, who actually laid the foundations in 1839-40; but the executed design certainly owes more to the competition project of the painter Thomas Cole (1801-48). See Cummings, A. L., ‘The Ohio State Capitol Competition’, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, XII (1953), 15-18. Modifications of the scheme initiated in 1839-40 were made with Walter’s assistance in 1844, and building was resumed in 1848 under the direction of William Russell West of Cincinnati. On his resignation in 1854 Nathan B. Kelly (1808-71) of Columbus succeeded, and the work was finally brought to a finish by Isaiah Rogers in 1858-61.

94.  See Wheildon, W. W., Memoir of Solomon Willard, Boston, 1865.

95.  Greenough is better known today as the ‘herald of functionalism’ than as a sculptor. See Wynne, N., and Newhall B., ‘Horatio Greenough: Herald of Functionalism’, Magazine of Art, XXII (1939), 12-15. For his theories, see Greenough, H., Aesthetics at Washington, Washington, 1851; Travels, Observations, and Experience of a Yankee Stone-cutter, New York, 1852; and Form and Function: Remarks on Art (H. A. Small, ed.), Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1947.