The first Act, as I have already said, passed in 1855, and although several attempts were made to form a company to carry it into effect, they all failed. In 1862 another Act of Parliament was obtained, as the original one had nearly expired. In the new Act the powers were enlarged, and the works were extended to 300,000l., with power to borrow 100,000l. more; and it was again attempted to form a company to carry it into effect, but failed. In 1865 a third attempt was made to form a company, and by the aid of Messrs. Rigby, the well-known contractors of the great Admiralty harbour at Holyhead, a company was at length formed. Those gentlemen contracted for the works at a certain price, and agreed to take a large number of the shares as well in payment. The works commenced under my direction, in the month of May 1865, and proceeded very well until the end of March 1866, when the Messrs. Rigby got into difficulties, and were unable to complete their contract, and the consequence was that the whole of the works were stopped. The state of the money market ever since has been so depressed that it has hitherto been impossible to find the money to carry them on, and thus this really valuable concern remains still in abeyance.
In 1866 another Act of Parliament was procured, enabling the Company to obtain more land and to increase the works, so that ultimately, when times become favourable, it is very probable that this great undertaking will be carried out, and will form one of the largest and most important dock establishments on the banks of the Thames.
During the year 1866 it was attempted to obtain an Act of Parliament for making a railway between Romford and the docks. It passed the House of Commons, but when it got into the House of Lords its supporters drew back and the Bill was abandoned.
CHAPTER X.
Retrospect—London Bridge—Sheerness Dockyard—Plymouth Breakwater and Victualling Yard—Steam Vessels for the Navy—Harbours—Railways—Broad and Narrow Gauge—Atmospheric Railway—Water Supply and Sewage.
I have thus endeavoured to give, in the foregoing narrative, an account of my professional and private life as near as my memory would serve. I have not had a single date, or note-book, or journal to refer to; so that many inaccuracies may have occurred, particularly with regard to the dates, although the facts and circumstances are, I believe, pretty fairly narrated.
In my professional career I consider that I have executed the following works:
I. London Bridge. This was designed by my father, as far as the general outline and proportions, but he did not live long enough to design any details, such as the depth of the arch-stones and those of the inverted arches between the main arches, or the adjustment of them, so that the whole might be placed in a perfect state of equilibrium, not only as regards the individual arches, but also with each other; neither was the width of the foundations of the piers and abutments given, nor the extent of piling necessary, the cornice and parapets, stairs, pilasters of the piers and abutments, the construction of the cofferdams and centres; the specification as to what materials should be used, and how they were to be put together; the approaches to the bridge on both sides, or how they were to be designed and put together; all these had to be worked out and executed by myself. It is true that my brother George gave me his advice when I required it, but still I was the sole engineer, and the whole responsibility rested with myself. The execution of these works was rendered much more difficult than intended by my father, for at his death the site was that of the old bridge. But the Committee of the Corporation of London insisted that the new bridge should be built immediately above the old one, the latter to be left standing during the construction of the new bridge. I was therefore obliged to build it in the deep hole above the old bridge, which was from 25 to 30 feet below the level of low-water mark of spring tides.
II. The completion of the great works of Sheerness Dockyard. These, as I have said, had been wholly designed by my father upon an entirely original and novel plan of hollow walls, which he first carried into effect at Great Grimsby Docks, in the year 1786. These walls, though composed of a mass of materials of the same weight as ordinary dock walls, were distributed over a wider area, and pressed less heavily upon that surface in proportion to their extent, and therefore the soft, sandy foundation upon which they were built was able to bear them without yielding; the increased friction also produced by the increased surface of their base enabled them to withstand with greater effect the lateral pressure of the earth behind them; thus a double object was gained, namely, security against both vertical and lateral pressure.
When my father died, on the 4th of October 1821, the northern half of the new dockyard, including the sea wall, the great basin, the three large dry docks at the west end, and the mast ponds and locks, had been nearly completed; so that it only remained to fix iron gates for the dry docks and those of the mast and boat ponds, which had been already designed and ordered, and were put into their places under my direction. This portion of the dockyard, although comprising the most extensive and costly part, was not the most difficult. The most arduous task still remained, namely, the construction of the northern portion. Here was the greatest depth of water, varying from 25 to 30 feet at low water of spring tides, the worst foundation, and the situation was much exposed to northerly and easterly winds. These obstacles were felt so strongly by my father, that he originally contemplated carrying out the works by means of the diving bell; but as so much experience had already been obtained by the employment of cofferdams in similar constructions, where they had been very successful, it became a question for my serious consideration whether it would not be better to use cofferdams for the northern portion of the dockyard, instead of employing the diving bell, which would necessarily require much more time. After consulting with the enterprising contractors, Messrs. Jolliffe, Banks, and Nicholson, who had completed the works already made, and Mr. John Thomas, the experienced resident engineer, we came to the unanimous conclusion that it was perfectly practicable to construct the remainder of the works by means of cofferdams; and although it would be rather more expensive, nevertheless they could be done much better and far more speedily than by the diving bell; and, indeed, they told me that my father had expressed the same opinion before he died; and that there was little doubt but that if he had lived he would have recommended cofferdams instead of the diving bell. I consulted my brother George upon the subject, and he was of the same opinion. We resolved to recommend that the remainder of the works should be completed by cofferdams, and the Admiralty approved of our recommendation. Messrs. Jolliffe, Banks, and Nicholson therefore undertook the contract for these works at the sum of 845,000l., and gave ample security; and they were most successfully finished for the sum of 854,000l. in round numbers, or at about 9000l. beyond the contract price, our estimate being nearly 900,000l.; so that they were actually completed for about 45,000l. below our estimate, and fully three years sooner than they would have been if the diving bell had been used. Of course the real merit of these works is due to my father; but I claim some credit for having successfully carried them into effect, for if any failure had taken place—and there was very great difficulty and risk—I should have been blamed for it, and probably been ruined at the outset of my career, as the whole responsibility rested with me; my brother never went near them.
III. I finished the Chatham dry docks, commenced by my father, at the cost of 100,000l. In these there was nothing remarkable; after those of Sheerness they were much less difficult, although of a somewhat similar kind.
IV. The next great work was the finishing of the great breakwater in Plymouth Sound. The chief merit I claim for this is in adding the benching or berm on the outside, at the base of the sea slope, which breaks the sea before it reaches the slope and prevents it from acting injuriously upon it. I also claim a certain portion of the credit for arranging and executing the paving of the upper surface, and the dovetailed masonry of the two ends of the breakwater.
V. The design and execution of the Royal William Victualling Establishment, at Stonehouse, near Devonport, I claim entirely as my own, with the exception of the machinery, for which my brother George is entitled to an equal share of credit with myself. This establishment, including the cost of the land, amounted, I believe, to between 600,000l. and 700,000l.
VI. The great basin, two building slips for first-rates, mast slip, and the river wall in front, at the Royal Dockyard at Woolwich, costing 340,000l.
VII. In company with Mr. Joseph Whidby, Mr. Walker, and Captain Fullerton, of the Trinity House, I made a report for removing the bar, by means of dredging, at the entrance of Portsmouth harbour, upon which there was only 13 feet at low water of spring tides, which we estimated at 55,000l.; and it is singular that this important work was never carried into effect until many years afterwards, when it proved to be completely successful as far as it went. The bar was lowered 5 or 6 feet, and it might be lowered 8 or 10 feet more, so as to enable the largest class of vessels to enter and depart at low water of spring tides, which would be of the greatest possible advantage to the public service; and although the Admiralty have not carried the dredging far enough, still there is now 18 feet at low water of spring tides, which enables the largest class of vessels to pass the bar at half tide, instead of only at high water as before. This fully proves the value and correctness of our joint report; it only now requires that our recommendation should be carried further, and there can be little doubt that it will be successful. This great national harbour will be rendered accessible at low water, and it ought to be, particularly after the enormous sums that have been expended upon it, for unless the depth over the bar is increased all improvements will be comparatively valueless. Mr. Murray and myself wrote a joint report to the Admiralty, recommending that, in order to assist the dredging operations over the bar, a sluice should be erected across the entrance to Langston harbour, with the gates or doors of the sluice pointing inwards, so that at high water they might be shut, and all the water, or so much of it as might be required, should be sent through Portsmouth harbour at ebb tide, to assist in scouring down the bar. Of course, in order to render these works effective, it would be necessary to enlarge the connecting channel between Portsmouth and Langston harbour, so that all the Langston tidal water should flow out through Portsmouth during the time of ebb.
The Admiralty up to the present time have not adopted this report. They must, however, in order to preserve the requisite depth over Portsmouth bar, do either the one or the other, or both; that is to say, they must increase the dredging operations, or send more tidal water over it, and the latter can only be obtained from Langston; as this harbour is of little commercial value, supposing that any partial silting up should take place, the depth could be restored by dredging; but if both the dredging of Portsmouth bar and the additional quantity of tidal water from Langston harbour should be resorted to, the bar might be kept down to the depth required, and Langston would not be injured. If these two operations are skilfully conducted, so as mutually to assist each other, the result will be successful, and this success is the more necessary, in consequence of the quantity of land which is now being reclaimed from Portsmouth harbour for the new works.
VIII. The great flour mills and biscuit machinery at the Clarence Victualling Yard, Portsmouth, were designed and executed by my brother George and myself. The idea of the bread apparatus was proposed by M. Grout, and worked out by ourselves. The great flour and biscuit mills at Deptford were also designed and executed by my brother and myself.
IX. The Thames Tunnel shield; the rolling machinery of the Bombay, the Calcutta, and the Mexican mints; the machinery at Constantinople for manufacturing small arms; numerous locomotive engines and tenders for different railways, amongst them the ‘Satellite,’ for the Brighton Railway, which was one of the first that travelled at the rate of 60 miles an hour. The engines and machinery for several of Her Majesty’s vessels of war, amongst which may be mentioned the ‘Bull Dog,’ the yacht ‘Elfin,’ and others; four iron vessels, engines, and machinery for the Russian Government for the Caspian Sea, the first that were ever placed there; two yachts for the Emperor Nicholas; the ‘Vladimir’ frigate; two large screw vessels of war for the Baltic; three also for the Black Sea; several for the Danube Company; cranes, sugar mills, diving bells, and machinery; gantry cranes for the mahogany roofs of the West India Docks; spinning and all kinds of machinery, from the year 1821 until the year 1852.
X. The first sea-going screw vessel that was constructed, namely, the ‘Archimedes;’ and also the ‘Dwarf,’ 1839, the first screw vessel of war that was introduced into the navy.
XI. I recommended that the use of the Cornish high-pressure condensing system should be introduced into the steam-vessels of the Royal Navy. At that time they were entirely upon the system of Boulton and Watt, when steam was only employed to the extent of 5 lb. pressure upon every square inch. Now it was well known that the intensity of the power of steam increased in a much greater ratio than the additional quantity of fuel required to raise the temperature, so that high-pressure condensed steam was much more economical than low pressure. There was a good deal of prejudice against it, in consequence of the decided objections of Boulton and Watt, and therefore it was not adopted at the time, but by degrees this prejudice has been overcome, and now steam of 25 to 30 lb. is employed in the Royal Navy, with great advantage and economy.
XII. I may also say that I was the means of introducing oscillating engines into the navy. These I believe were invented by a Mr. Witté, of Hull, but in consequence of the extreme accuracy required in making them, and some degree of prejudice against the vibratory action of the cylinder, this very valuable invention was laid aside. The able and ingenious Mr. Maudslay took it up, but was dissatisfied with it, and abandoned it. Mr. John Penn, who had a small establishment for making machinery at Greenwich, then adopted it, and commenced manufacturing these engines upon a small scale for the steamboats on the Thames. He improved on the idea, acquiring the greatest experience in constructing the engines, and he was convinced that they could be made upon any scale with equally successful results. It happened about this time that the Admiralty required new engines of greater power for their official yacht, the ‘Black Eagle,’ whose speed averaged little more than 8 knots an hour, and they applied to Boulton and Watt, who had made the old engines for the ‘Black Eagle.’ They said they could easily make more powerful engines, but that these would necessarily be heavier, and sink the vessel lower in the water, when the resistance would be so much increased that very little additional speed would be gained, and therefore it would be better to have an entirely new vessel. The Admiralty did not wish to incur the expense, and the matter was likely to fall to the ground. Penn heard of this, and, quite uninvited, sent in a tender to make new engines for the ‘Black Eagle,’ double the power of the old ones, of the same weight, and occupying the same space, for a sum, not, I think, exceeding the cost of engines of the same power on the old method. He further offered, if the Admiralty officers were not satisfied, to take them out, and replace the old engines at his own expense. I happened to be present upon other business with the Comptroller of the Navy, Sir Thomas Byam Martin, when Penn’s tender was sent in, and after reading it he threw it to me, and said, “Rennie, what do you think of that; should I accept it or not?” I read Penn’s tender carefully, and knowing something about the oscillating engine, and having a good opinion of it, I said I thought he should accept it. “Then,” said he, “I will do so, and if it turns out badly you shall have the blame.” “Very well,” I replied, “if it turns out badly I will take the blame.” Penn’s offer was accordingly accepted. The engines were made and fixed on board; all the conditions of the tender were fully complied with, and the Admiralty were perfectly satisfied with their bargain. From that time forward Penn became one of the chief manufacturers of the Admiralty engines, and has continued to be so up to the present time.
The harbours which I made are described in my work on ‘British and Foreign Harbours’; they were a portion of Kingstown, in Dublin Bay; Donaghadee, Port Patrick, Port Rush, Warkworth, Sunderland, East Hartlepool, Whitehaven; nearly rebuilding Ramsgate harbour; Ponta Delgada, in the Azores. I designed harbours for Oporto; the Mattozenhas; Viana, Aveiro, Figuera, and St. Ubes, for the Portuguese Government; also for Douglas, Castleton, Peel, Ramsey, and Laxey, in the Isle of Man, for the local authorities; and Redoubt Kalé, in the Black Sea, for the Russian Government.
XIII. London Bridge; Hyde Park, Kensington Gardens, and Staines Bridges, besides finishing those at Crammond and New Galloway, designed by my father.
I laid out and carried through Parliament the Brighton Railway and the Black wall Railway, in 1838; also the Manchester and Liverpool Railway, in conjunction with my brother George, in 1827. In 1838 I designed the Central Kent Railway, which, by passing through the centre of the county, connected all the leading towns on the main line, besides reducing the distance between the metropolis, Dover, and Folkestone to the minimum.
I also projected a line for the Great Northern in the years 1844-45, which was admitted to be the best and shortest line; but it unfortunately failed in consequence of the late Mr. Francis Giles not having completed the parliamentary surveys. I laid down a railway between Leeds and Carlisle, that would have materially shortened the distance between the important manufacturing town of Leeds, Carlisle, Glasgow, and the north of Scotland; a line between Leeds and Bradford, and another between York and Scarborough. Another, called the North Wales Railway, between Bangor and Port Dyllaen, where I designed a capacious harbour and docks, that would have been of the greatest advantage to Liverpool, avoiding the dangerous navigation between that place and Port Dyllaen, and affording an excellent point of departure for Ireland. I also made a design for a new port for Holyhead, upon the principles laid down by my father, that would have answered the purpose far better, and have saved in a great measure the expense that has been incurred by the present ill-contrived harbour, and which has not answered the object intended.
In company with my friend Mr. George Remington, I designed the direct London and Manchester Railway in the years 1844-45; this line would have reduced the distance between London and Manchester to 176 miles, besides affording railway communication to a number of the intermediate towns, such as Bradford, Burton, Leicester, Congleton, and other places that had not hitherto received the benefit of direct railway accommodation. This line was pronounced by the Board of Trade to be the most important and best laid down line that had been brought before Parliament, and was strongly recommended by them; and it would have been carried, but unfortunately there was another competing line by Mr. Rastrick, that was ultimately abandoned by its promoters, who, before doing so, united with us; but in doing this the reference books containing the names of the owners and occupiers along both lines became mixed, and the result was, that seven miles of the reference of the competing line was substituted for seven miles of our line, and vice versâ. This was fatal, and the Bill was consequently lost; and this valuable line, almost the best of any in England, could never be resuscitated. The North-Western Railway, thinking that they were safe from all competition, declined taking up the line, though their interest imperatively called upon them to do so, and further, would not unite with nor buy up the Midland from Leeds to Rugby. The Midland Company then determined to make an independent line to London, and took the identical course laid down by Remington and myself. They have become a very formidable rival to the North-Western, and this is precisely a similar case to that between the South-Eastern and the London, Chatham, and Dover Companies. If the South-Eastern Company had only adopted my Central Kent line, which was laid down in 1838, before they had commenced their present line—and they promised to do so—the London, Chatham, and Dover Railway would never have been made, and the county of Kent would have been better served, many millions would have been saved, and many thousand unfortunate shareholders would have avoided ruin.
I laid down lines for the kingdoms of Sweden and Portugal, which have been more or less adopted, and projected a line from Odessa to Moscow. Also the London, Brighton, and South Coast as far as Salisbury, and from thence to Warminster, which has since been adopted. A line from London to Birmingham, Leeds, and Carlisle; Leeds and Bradford; Dumfries and Port Patrick; Newry and Enniskillen, in Ireland; Bangor to Port Dyllaen, North Wales; Cannock Chase line, in Staffordshire, through an undeveloped coal district, another of my lines which has since been carried into effect. The East Lincoln, from Lynn to Great Grimsby; the direct London and Norwich, from Bishop’s Stortford to Thetford, which would have shortened the distance between London and Norwich and Yarmouth. All these lines were laid upon the direct principle, that is, taking the shortest distance that the nature of the intervening country would permit between the two termini; this principle is now proved to be the correct one, and if it had only been acted upon before, we may readily conceive the vast amount of capital which would have been saved, while the counties through which railways have been made would have received a much greater benefit; whereas, by the system which has hitherto been adopted, a great number of unnecessary lines have been constructed, and a constant competition and rivalry have taken place between the different companies, and now, with reduced dividends and increased charges, they find out their error, when it is too late to be remedied.
Another most important error has been committed by a too narrow gauge having been adopted. My brother and myself, when we carried the Bill for the Manchester and Liverpool through Parliament, in the year 1826—and this may be considered almost the very commencement of the railway system—after investigating the width between all the various carriage wheels, whether for goods or passengers, we decided that the width of gauge from centre to centre of the rails should be 5 feet 6 inches or 6 feet. When Mr. George Stephenson became the engineer for executing the line, he decided that the gauge should be only 4 feet 8½ inches from centre to centre of the railway, for no other reason than that the gauge between the old colliery rails was 4 feet 8½ inches; hence arose all the subsequent difficulties. It was quite clear that 4 feet 8½ inches was too narrow. Brunel, seizing on this mistake, proposed at once to make the gauge 7 feet from centre to centre of the rails for the Great Western Railway. This was as evidently too much as Stephenson’s was too little. The power of a locomotive engine is in proportion to its weight, and the greater the weight the greater the power, acting as it does by its adhesion to the rails; and to increase the power of an engine upon the narrow gauge could only be done with safety by increasing its length; for if it be done by increasing the height, the centre of gravity would be raised also, and the motion of the engine would be rendered unsteady; and by increasing the length the engine would be less adapted for going round sharp curves. Now in the ordinary traffic of goods, such as coals, &c., extraordinary velocity was not required, and therefore the width of the gauge was not of so much consequence, but when it came to carrying passengers the case was wholly altered. Latterly the coaches and mails had travelled at the rate of 10 and 12 miles an hour, whereas goods were seldom carried at the rate of more than 3 miles an hour. If passengers were to travel by railway it would not be less than 12 miles an hour, and therefore it was at length necessary to provide for this velocity, and more; otherwise, as there was a certain prejudice on the outset against railway travelling, the latter could not expect to have the preference. But when it was ascertained, as it was at the trial of engines upon the Rainhill plane of the Manchester and Liverpool Railway, that the imperfect locomotives of that day could go at the rate of 30 miles an hour, the whole case was changed; the carriage of goods, which at first was most important, gave way to that of carrying passengers, and it was evident that the whole system of locomotion, whether of goods or passengers, must be absorbed by railways. It was therefore more especially necessary that the question of the gauge should be most carefully considered. I may be answered, certainly, that the improved locomotive engines upon the narrow gauge realize a speed of 50 to 60 miles an hour, and this is fast enough for anything; but then this cannot be done without incurring greater risk than upon a broader gauge. The Great Western realize a speed of 45 miles an hour without the least risk, i.e. including stoppages, whereas the narrow gauge does not do more than 35 to 37 miles an hour, and that probably with a greater wear and tear of the rails. A medium therefore between the two gauges, that is 5 feet 6 inches or 6 feet, instead of 4 feet 8½ inches or 7 feet, appeared to my brother and self the proper gauge; and if such had been adopted we should never have heard of the 7-feet gauge, and the 5 feet 6 inches or 6-feet gauge would have been universally adopted, to the great advantage of all.
Before leaving railways, it may be proper to say something about the atmospheric system. When an experiment was made on a large scale and succeeded very well, it was subsequently reduced to practice upon the Dublin and Bray Railway, between Kingstown and Dalkey, a length of about 3 miles. Here it succeeded perfectly; the steepest incline was completely mastered, and the smoothness and luxury of travelling were unequalled. Brunel afterwards took it up, and employed it upon the South Devon Railway. There it succeeded also perfectly as far as speed and luxury of travelling were concerned. The difficulty however of making the valve in the exhausting tube was so great that it was ultimately abandoned, after having incurred great expense, and the locomotive system was again resorted to. The Croydon Railway also adopted it, but gave it up for the same reason as the South Devon. My brother and myself were much taken with this system, and made several of the steam engines for it, that answered their purpose perfectly, and we thought that by a little more perseverance in it, the difficulties complained of might have been overcome, but the proprietors would not listen either to Brunel or ourselves. The Stephensons made a dead set against it, and, taking the facts at the time, perhaps they were right; but it is very rarely that a new invention succeeds at the first or second trial: it requires time to ascertain the defects, and to study more minutely the remedy, and, after a little while, the cure for the evil is found out. I should not be surprised if ultimately the atmospheric system comes to life again: indeed, the very strongest opponents of it have already adopted it in London, with certain modifications, for conveying the mail bags in London from the General Post Office to some of the railway stations, with considerable success, and Mr. Rammell made an experimental line of this kind at the Crystal Palace. The defects in the original lines were principally those of workmanship, and can be remedied by degrees, as is always the case whenever a principle is sound, for it only requires perseverance to achieve ultimate success.
XIV. Drainage of lowlands upon a large scale I have carried into effect in several instances already described. The completion of the Eau Brink Cut, the designing and making the Norfolk Estuary Cut below Lynn, and the Marshland works, by means of which from 350,000 to 400,000 acres of land are drained; the Nene Estuary Cut, by which about 150,000 acres of land are drained; the improvement of the Witham between Boston and the sea, by which the drainage of about 250,000 acres has been materially improved; the Ancholme drainage, by which 50,000 acres of lowlands have been well drained; altogether amounting to between 800,000 and 900,000 acres.
XV. I may also say that I have embanked from the estuaries of the Ouse, the Nene, and the Witham, about 6000 acres of fen land, which is now more or less under cultivation. I have also laid down a plan, at present being carried into effect, by which 32,000 additional acres will be embanked from the estuaries of the Ouse and Nene; and another plan for embanking 45,000 acres from the estuaries of the Welland and Witham; indeed, my original plan of 1837 was for embanking from 150,000 to 200,000 acres of land from the estuaries of the Ouse, Nene, Welland, and Witham, and the Great Wash; and I have no doubt that in time this will be effected, and another large and most valuable county—all rich agricultural land—will be added to the kingdom. I also obtained an Act for embanking 32,000 acres from the north side of the estuary of the Thames, near Shoeburyness. I believe that, in addition to this, three times the amount may be taken from this and other parts of the Thames estuary. Let to these be added the lands which may be saved from the estuaries of the Humber, the Forth, the Tay, the Clyde, the Solway, Morecambe Bay, and the Mersey, altogether from 500,000 to 600,000 acres of land may be reclaimed, or three large new counties may be added to the kingdom, capable of producing annually an additional supply of 3,500,000 quarters of corn, which, at 3l. per quarter, would, after deducting 20s. per quarter for the cost of production, add a revenue of about 6,000,000l. a year to the country. A great deal may be done in this way also in Ireland. We should, however, deduct a million a year for the first fifteen years to cover the cost of embankment. The clear annual gain would be 5,000,000l. a year to the country; or, putting it in another light, the land so acquired would maintain an additional number of inhabitants. Besides this, large tracts of lowlands adjacent to these estuaries might be greatly improved in their drainage, in connection with the reclamation works, which would add considerably to their produce.
The execution of all these works, besides draining the quantity of land I have stated, and more than doubling its value, has also very greatly improved the navigation.
I also extended the Newry Ship Canal nearly two miles, which has a depth of 16 to 18 feet, and is 130 feet wide, with an entrance lock 50 feet wide. I deepened the old canal to Newry, so that large vessels, drawing nearly 16 to 17 feet, can come up to the town.
XVI. Soon after my father’s death, in 1821, when I may be said to have entered my professional career upon my own account, I began to consider the water question; that is to say, the best mode of economizing water, so that those districts where it might be most required could be supplied, as far as the physical geography of those places would render it practicable. Generally speaking, there falls a certain quantity of rain in every district during the year, and this, with more or less regularity, at particular seasons and times. In some places the rain is periodical, and falls in the course of three or four consecutive months; in other countries it falls at different times, principally, however, in the winter and autumn months. Now after the periodical rain is over, the whole country is deprived of water throughout the remainder, or about three-fourths, of the year. The remedy for this is to construct reservoirs in the most convenient places, upon such a scale as the wants of the country may require; in these reservoirs the surplus waters should be stored during the periodical rains, to serve as a supply in the dry season, not only for domestic purposes, but for irrigation, navigation, &c.; the reservoirs should, in some cases, be covered, and in others open, even to the extent of making them large lakes. They should be provided with proper sluices and culverts, open or covered, as may be required, and best adapted for distributing the water in the most beneficial manner.
Having obtained a sufficient supply, the next point to be attended to is, to take care that the water shall not be polluted: in order to effect this, in all thickly-peopled districts the sewage should not be discharged into the river or watercourses, but into separate, isolated, and well-ventilated tanks, and then be deodorized by mixing it with earth, or subjecting it to any well-known process for this purpose, and the refuse should be distributed for manure; thus the sewage, instead of being a nuisance, will become valuable for agricultural purposes.
By these means, regulated according to the particular circumstances of each case, the whole question, viz. economy of water, which is so very important in every respect, is solved. I have long endeavoured to make it clearly understood, but in England we are slow to move in a new direction. The enemy must be at our doors before we are prepared to meet him, and then we begin in earnest. Such has been the case with the water question: we carried drainage almost to the utmost extent, so that the rainwater was discharged into the adjacent watercourses and rivers with the greatest rapidity and was carried off to sea, and we thought not a moment that the day would come when we should want it. The universal cry was, “Only get rid of the water, and all will go on well.” At the same time all the sewage matter was discharged into the watercourses, the cry being, “Only get rid of the sewage, and our cities and towns will be healthy, and we shall hear no more of it;” little thinking that the streams would be polluted, and that water when most wanted would not be forthcoming, and that even the moderate quantity that could be obtained would be unfit for domestic purposes. The Thames and all the great rivers and streams were converted into common sewers, threatening to spread pestilence around them. The water that was to be obtained for domestic purposes was polluted to such an extent, that the malaria caused by the foul state of the watercourses was increased by drinking the contaminated water that we fondly expected we had got rid of. At last the public opened their eyes, and asked how all this had arisen; then commissioners of all kinds were appointed by the Government to investigate these important questions; and what is the result? Precisely that which I mentioned years ago, namely, 1. That means must be established for economizing water and for affording an ample supply at all times. 2. That all sewage matter must be diverted or be prevented from being discharged into the watercourses. 3. That as far as practicable the sewage matter must be utilized for manuring the land. All these three propositions, which constitute the whole elements of these important questions, are now being carried into effect by Acts of Parliament; better late than never, for if these terrible evils had been allowed to exist much longer the consequences would have been most fatal.
About four years ago I wrote two letters to ‘The Times,’ which were printed in that journal, embodying my views upon this subject in a detailed manner, according to the principles above described. I am extremely glad that at the eleventh hour the subject is beginning to be thoroughly understood, and it is to be hoped that now the proper remedy will be employed; it is contained in the principles that I have recommended for the last forty years. I may not perhaps claim the merit of the whole; but this I must say in justice to myself, that I have contributed in some degree to direct attention to the subject, and I most sincerely trust that, having been made conscious of its importance, the public will not be content until the question has been thoroughly sifted, and the evils complained of successfully remedied. Up to the present time neither compensating reservoirs for the due supply of water during the dry seasons have been made, nor, with a few solitary exceptions, has the sewage been excluded from the rivers, nor have the watercourses been properly improved so as to prevent inundations of the adjacent lowlands. In fact, the authorities have only just begun to get an idea of what is required to obtain an ample supply of good water; but the more they investigate the subject, the more they will find that only upon a right understanding of the principles above recommended can this supply be procured. Sewage matter has now been recognized as a fertilizing agent, and the only points undecided with regard to it are the best modes of deodorization, so as not to injure its manuring value, and the most suitable method of applying it to the land, whether in a liquid or in a solid state.
With regard to water for domestic use, considerable progress has been made: the water is conducted into covered reservoirs, where it is excluded from the action of the atmosphere; it is also filtered, so that all the alluvial and tangible vegetable matters are excluded; and the best method of separating from it those injurious ingredients with which it is chemically combined has made great progress. These, no doubt, are considerable advantages gained, but unless the means of obtaining an ample supply be used, the other advantages will be comparatively of little service. It is true they will be valuable as far as they go, but if there be a deficient supply of water, there will remain a great deal to be remedied, therefore it will be necessary to secure an ample supply by means of open reservoirs.
CHAPTER XI.
The Formation of Natural Breakwaters—The Society of Civil Engineers—The Education of a Civil Engineer—Some Hints on Practice—Estimating.
In the introduction to my work on ‘British and Foreign Harbours,’ I have suggested a method by which shoals formed by alluvial deposits in the open sea might be converted into effective breakwaters, so as to become harbours of refuge; or the means of removing them altogether. It is well known that many existing shoals form, to some extent, safe roadsteads at certain times of tide, e.g. the Goodwin Sands, the banks outside Yarmouth Roads, the banks off the coast of Holland, and many other places. These are generally formed off alluvial shores, where the meeting of opposing currents causes an eddy or line of stagnation, and the alluvial matter held in suspension is deposited, forming a bank, according to the extent, width, and direction of the eddy. In some instances, as in the case of deltas of rivers, and along coasts where the waters are densely charged with alluvial matter, these shoals, by continual deposit, are raised to the level of high water of neap tides, when a succession of marine vegetation appears on the surface, finally becoming a rich grass marsh; except under special circumstances, the land is seldom raised higher, and where there is no flow of tide the same result takes place at the medium level of the waters.
In other cases, as in the open sea, where the waters are exposed to violent agitation by the wind, these deposits not only rarely reach the level of high water, but, except under particular circumstances, seldom exceed the level of half-tide, and often the banks remain many fathoms below low water, though even in their lowest state they are far above the bottom of the sea. As all these banks are composed of alluvial matter, we can only ascribe the different levels, first, to the variable quantity of alluvium with which the waters are charged; secondly, to the degree of agitation to which the waters are exposed; and thirdly, to the velocity and extent of the opposing currents which produce the banks. Having thus stated generally the causes that produce these banks, I now come to my proposition, namely, the best mode of utilizing them for making harbours of refuge, or the method for clearing them away where they may be injurious.
With regard to the first, it is only necessary to increase the power of the depositing eddy by means of artificial works, to raise the banks to any height required; by this means they may be rendered permanent breakwaters at the least expense. Secondly, where these shoals are injurious they may be removed by diverting the course of one or both currents, so that the line of stagnation shall be destroyed; the action of the sea will then gradually remove the shoal. Thus we have the means in our power of converting these sandbanks into most valuable harbours of refuge, or of removing them where they are found to be injurious. This I do not pretend to call an invention, but simply an idea, and I am not aware that it has been suggested before. Modern engineers have not sufficiently directed their attention to the construction of harbours. It is a very simple affair to build piers or breakwaters of any extent, provided the requisite means are forthcoming, but it is a totally different thing to ascertain whether, after these works have been constructed, they will answer the purpose originally intended.
When President of the Institution of Civil Engineers, during the years 1845-6-7, I drew up detailed reports of the history of the profession from its commencement in Great Britain up to that time, showing what had been done in every department, by whom, and at what date. These reports are published in their ‘Transactions.’ Subsequent presidents have to some extent adopted a similar course; but with all due respect to them, they have not taken that large and scientific view of the profession of a civil engineer which it is imperatively necessary to adopt in order to keep the profession up to that high tone which its importance requires, not only for its own credit, but for the benefit of the world at large. Perhaps there is no profession (with all proper respect to others) that has conferred so much benefit upon mankind as that of the civil engineer. Its objects are clearly defined in the two mottoes belonging to the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, which was the first of the kind established in this country, having originated with Smeaton, Mylne, and my father, namely, “Omnia numero pondere et mensurâ;” Ὦν φύσει κρατοῦντες τέχνῃ νιχώμεθα. Up to that date the profession of a civil engineer may be said to have been unknown in Great Britain; previous to that time we were simply known as “vulgar mechanics”—men who toiled with their hands, as masons, bricklayers, carpenters, blacksmiths, &c. But those who so called us would have entertained a very different idea of the “mechanics” if they had been forced to dispense with their services. Let me ask how could the various and complicated operations which alone render modern trade, and therefore modern civilization, possible, be carried on without the aid of the mechanic, alias the civil engineer?
The object of the Smeatonian Society was merely a social gathering in the form of a club, to assemble the members at dinner at certain times, when they could discuss in a friendly manner the various subjects connected with their profession, and to endeavour to obliterate all those rivalries and jealousies which unfortunately are too common amongst professional men of all classes. The society was to serve as a rallying point for the profession, and it was believed that when their members increased sufficiently (for there was little more than a dozen engineers in the kingdom at the time who were counted as such) the society might extend its usefulness by reading papers, discussing them, and publishing them regularly to the world, in the same manner as the already established scientific societies; this has since been done by the Institution of Civil Engineers. But I think the time has now arrived when that Institution should be enlarged, and take a wider sphere. It has hitherto been confined too much to the class practising purely engineering works; but the mechanical engineers now form a body which must be treated with every deference. It is very true that the latter are freely admitted into the institution, but there seems to be a tacit understanding amongst the former that they should not attain the honour of becoming presidents and vice-presidents. It is true that the late Mr. Field, a most distinguished mechanical engineer, was elected president, and served his time; but this, I believe, arose more from his having been one of the earliest members of the institution than from any respect due to the particular class of the profession to which he belonged. Now there cannot be a greater mistake than this. Every member of that institution, to whatever class he belongs, from the moment he is elected should be in every respect upon precisely the same footing as those who are now considered the governing class, and the ablest man should be chosen from each grade as president or vice-president alternately, so that each department should successively occupy the chair. Also, instead of choosing the president and council by rotation, according to seniority, the acknowledged best men in every department should be chosen as officers. And further, the institution thus regulated should have the power of giving certificates of competency after the candidates for admission have been duly examined by independent examiners; and until they have received these certificates they should not be allowed to practise. This is the rule in every other learned profession, and there can be no reason why it should not be adopted by the engineers. It is the only method by which it can take rank amongst the learned professions; and as no other requires more scientific knowledge, or is entrusted with a greater portion of responsibility or a larger amount of trust, or where failure becomes more disastrous, it is quite clear that no man should be allowed to practise it unless he has passed a proper examination, and has received a certificate of competency from proper authorities.
Against this proposal it may be argued, that many illiterate men, although of great original genius, would be excluded if their competency were tried by such a test. My reply is, let them not be tried only by the ordinary rules of scientific books, but also by the general principles which the candidate professes, and let those principles be tested, to prove how far they are in accordance with sound philosophy. A man like Stephenson or Brindley, although illiterate, may understand these principles perfectly, and yet may not be able to explain them. Nevertheless, let him be examined, but in a different manner from the ordinary routine, and it will soon be discovered whether his profession and his practice are founded upon true mechanical and philosophical principles.
If these examinations are properly conducted every possible objection will be abolished, and no scientific educated engineer, or any illiterate person of true scientific genius, will be prevented from pursuing the profession, whilst only the speculator and charlatan will be excluded. By this means the public will be assured that the works for which they subscribe the funds will be conducted in the best manner, and most probably to a successful termination. At present, the system upon which public works are carried on is wholly wrong. There is no system. Any man without business, competent or not, dubs himself engineer, starts a project, well or ill founded, as the case may be, generally the latter, and issues a prospectus to the public, to obtain the necessary funds to carry his proposal into effect. Next he gets a contractor to back him by taking a certain number of shares, provided that he has the contract at his own price. The shares he looks upon as good for nothing, and therefore adds so much more to his ordinary profits, so that instead of receiving 10 or 12 per cent. upon his cost price, which is the usual rule of the trade, he gets double, with the shares into the bargain, all of which is added to the capital of the undertaking; and in order to carry into effect this wasteful policy, the contractor generally stipulates for two or three of his own nominees to be placed upon the board, to “look after” his interests, so that, in point of fact, he pays himself pretty nearly what he likes. The engineer, who ought to be his master, loses all control over him, and in many cases becomes little better than his servant. This is certainly a most discreditable state of things, and has been the cause of the most wasteful expenditure, and the ruin of many valuable undertakings, and it will always continue to be the case so long as the present system prevails.
The real object of the civil engineer is to promote the civilization of the world, by the proper application of all the great mechanical means at his command, and to take a high, independent position as a scientific man, thoroughly versed in his profession both theoretically and practically, and wholly independent of contractors, and all sinister influences. Unless he can do this, he never will be held in that esteem and respect, or take that high position without which no professional man can properly discharge the duties that he owes to himself and to the public.
Against what I have said it may perhaps be urged that I assign too high a place to the profession to which my father and myself have had the honour to belong; but I think that when the subject has been calmly and fairly considered it will be generally admitted that I have not done so without reason. Without wishing for a moment to depreciate the merits of any other body of men, I think it will be conceded that the objects proposed by the engineer, and the acquirements, knowledge, and experience that he must possess before he can practise successfully, are at least equal to those of any other profession, particularly after the practical examples exhibited to the world of the great benefits that engineering has already conferred upon mankind. Therefore are we entitled to be ranked amongst the most learned professions, and to receive all the honours they have most justly earned; and I trust the time is not far distant when this justice will be accorded to them.
Before concluding this sketch of my career I will offer a few observations as to what I consider, from my experience, the best plan of education for the profession of a civil engineer. Hitherto there has been no regular system. A youth leaves school about the age of seventeen or eighteen, without any previous training, and his parents, thinking that he has got a mechanical turn, as it is termed, decide at once to make him a civil engineer, whether he likes it or is fit for it or not. They then send him, with a considerable premium, to an engineer of some standing and practice, who, unless special conditions are made (and very few engineers will make them), will not undertake to teach him the profession. The pupil is sent into the office, and placed under the direction of the principal assistant, who directs him to do whatever is required, if he can do it, whether drawing, writing, or calculating, or anything else; and if he wishes to learn anything, he must find it out himself: neither the principal nor assistant explains the principles or reasons of anything that is done. If he prove to be steady, intelligent, and useful, keeps the regular office hours, and evinces a determination to understand thoroughly the why and wherefore of every kind of work that is brought before him, and by this means acquires some practical knowledge, he will soon attract the notice of his employer, and will be gradually transferred from one department to another, until the expiration of his pupilage, which varies from three to four years; then, if he really has acquired a competent knowledge of the profession, and the employer thinks his old pupil can be of further service to him, he is engaged at a moderate salary, to be employed in such capacity as he is fit for. If during his pupilage he has made but little progress, nothing beyond mere routine, he is discharged with a certificate according to his merits, and sent into the world, to find his way forward as best he can.
Now it should be understood that the pupil only learns one part of his business, such as the construction of railways, canals, improvement of rivers, docks, drainage, harbours, and waterworks, and the buildings connected with them; but there is another and very important part of civil engineering, namely, the mechanical department, of which he remains totally ignorant. Nor will he gain any insight into the raising of coals, iron, or any other geological product. Now, in order to form a good civil engineer, in my opinion it is absolutely necessary that he should be well acquainted with all these different branches. To this it may be replied, that it is not necessary an engineer should be acquainted with all departments of the profession, but only with the one to which he intends more particularly to devote himself. Now this is a very great mistake, for they are all so intimately connected, that without having a general knowledge of the whole you cannot practise in any one department with complete success; for whenever you have to rely upon the resources of another department you can never make sure of being thoroughly well served, unless you are yourself a tolerable judge of work. I repeat, then, that an engineer who has studied only one department cannot be termed properly educated. And the question arises, what is the best mode of education for a pupil to obtain this multifarious, and, as I contend, absolutely necessary, information, to enable him to practise the profession of a civil engineer in the most enlightened, scientific, and practical manner? My answer is this: Let him first get a sound elementary education in the several departments of arithmetic, algebra, geometry, natural philosophy, geography, geology, astronomy, chemistry, land and hydrographical surveying, as well as grammar, English composition, history, French, German, and Latin, according to the improved system of modern education; every youth of ordinary talents has a tolerably fair knowledge of these at seventeen or eighteen. What then should be the training for an engineer? First let him go through the best course of modern education at his command, including the elements of geometry, mathematics, and the physical sciences, not excluding Latin and Greek, in spite of the prejudice against them now frequently expressed. Then let him be apprenticed for two or three years to some good steam engine and machinery manufacturer, where he should learn to make drawings and calculations, handle tools, make models, steam-engine machinery, and put machinery together. By this means, if he applies his mind to it properly, he may become a practical as well as theoretical mechanician, which is the soundest basis for good engineering; indeed, without this it is impossible for an engineer to be thoroughly successful, but being well grounded in this most important knowledge, all the others will become comparatively easy. Having gone through this apprenticeship, let him bind himself for three or four years to some well-known civil engineer, of large practice in railways, docks, harbours, waterworks, canals, drainage, rivers, &c. In this office the pupil will learn everything connected with these departments, and as they are founded more or less upon practical mechanics, he will soon find that from his previous mechanical education he has already acquired considerable knowledge of them, and it will only be necessary to apply those principles, modified according to the particular circumstances required: in fact, the principles are the same, although applied upon a larger scale.
In laying down a railway the young engineer will have to consider the particular local, geographical and geological features of the country through which the line is to pass, and the extent of mechanical power that will be necessary to work it effectually, consistent with the cost of making the cuttings and embankments. Here is a purely mechanical question, which the pupil’s previous instruction will enable him to decide, and which he could not do without this instruction.
If it be a question of improving a river, the quantity of water flowing through it, the inclination of its bed, the extent and levels of the district which it has to drain, will reduce themselves to the laws of the pressure and movement of fluids, which are explained under the general theorems of hydraulics and hydrostatics, supplemented by certain rules derived from practical experience, such as friction, &c.
Again, if it be the making of a harbour, the student must first thoroughly examine the nature of the locality, that is, its geographical position and geological character. As regards the former, whether the harbour is to be at the mouth of a river, whether that river discharges its waters into a bay, or through a projecting exposed line of coast where the main tidal currents run continuously and rapidly past it. With regard to the latter, whether the adjacent coasts be flat and alluvial; or elevated, but still composed of soft alluvial or sandy and calcareous soil, easily abraded or worn away by the passing currents; or whether they be composed of the harder or primary rocks. He must also carefully consider the strength and the direction of the currents. All these various conditions must be carefully weighed before coming to a decision.
In constructing close harbours, the same observations must be made. Each of these cases requires a totally different kind of treatment, and the correct method can only be ascertained by a thorough investigation and knowledge of the local circumstances, such as winds, tides, currents, coasts, &c., so that the harbour when constructed may afford every facility for ingress and egress, safety when within, and not be liable to any deposit.
In order to give the requisite supply of water to canals it is imperative that sufficient reservoirs should be established chiefly at the high level if possible, also at each intervening ascent and descent; but it is most desirable that there should be only one high level, and generally speaking this may obtained; but when, from particular local circumstances, this cannot be done, then the high levels, even at considerable extra expense, should be reduced to as few as practicable. The same may be said with regard to railways, but in the case of canals it is always absolutely necessary that there should be reservoir space to supply the greatest amount of lockage that may be required during the season when there is the least quantity of rainfall. The rainfall in any given district may always be ascertained by proper rain gauges; and whenever it has been found that there is no probability of obtaining a sufficiency of water to pass the amount of trade that may be expected over any given length of canal, then the high level must be lowered sufficiently to obtain the required supply. When, from peculiar local circumstances, this cannot be done, then it will become necessary to erect steam engines of the requisite power to pump back the water from the lower to the higher levels. But as a rule it will be found, that by laying out a canal properly, and by storing sufficient water to answer all the required lock supply at proper places, pumping back will only be necessary in extreme cases. This, however, is a question of detail that will be governed by the local circumstances of each particular case. With regard to the construction of canals, that must be regulated by the quantity of trade to be passed, and the charges that it will bear; but, within certain limits, the larger the canal the better. In the case of ship canals for seaborne vessels, it is advisable to construct them wherever they can be made at a reasonable cost, and there is traffic enough to pay a fair interest upon the capital.
In the drainage of extensive districts of lowlands, whether bordering upon rivers or otherwise, it is the better plan, with some exceptions, to divide the lowland from the highland waters, and to discharge them by separate outfalls; because if they are both discharged by one outfall, the highland water, coming from a higher level, and naturally having the greatest velocity, will force its way first to the outfall, and until it is discharged the lowland water cannot get off, but will accumulate upon and inundate the adjacent lands. Again, if only one outfall be provided, a much more extensive system of main and interior drains will be required, as these latter must serve as reservoirs to contain both waters until they can be discharged by the common outfall; but by keeping them distinct from each other, the highland water may readily be discharged into the upper part of the rivers or watercourses, whilst the lowland water may be made to discharge itself at the lowest point the outfall will admit of, and will get off before the highland water can reach it. Moreover, the highland water, being discharged so much higher up the watercourses or rivers, will scour out their channels as well as the outfall, prevent them from filling up, and preserve them in the best state both for drainage and navigation. These catchwater drains for the highland waters will also be found very useful for supplying the lowland districts with fresh water for cattle, domestic purposes, and irrigation during the summer and dry seasons, when fresh water is so much needed for the lowlands. This system was first introduced by my father, in 1805, in the drainage of the extensive district of lowlands bordering upon the river Witham, between Boston and Lincoln, amounting to about 150,000 acres.
Generally speaking, before attempting to improve the interior drainage of any lowland district, it is necessary, in the first place, to examine the state of the outfall, and how far it is capable of improvement; before this is ascertained it is impossible to lay down any effectual plan. In order to make the outfall effective it should be improved to the greatest extent practicable, so that the low-water line or level may be reduced to the lowest point. Having done this, the interior drainage may be laid out accordingly. When this is combined with the catchwater system above described, the drainage may be rendered as complete as possible, as far as it can be upon the natural principle of gravitation. When the water cannot be discharged from the outfall at all times by gravitation, we must enlarge the main and tributary drains, so that they may serve as reservoirs to contain the drainage water during the time that the outfall sluice is closed in consequence of the water in the river or the sea, where the outfall sluice may be placed, being higher than the level of the water in the main and interior drains. No land can be considered as properly drained unless the surface of the water in the adjacent drains can be kept from 2 to 3 feet below the surface of the adjacent lands at all times. There must be no stagnation of water; at the same time there must always be the means, as far as practicable, of supplying the land with that proper degree of moisture necessary for nourishing the soil, either from the direct rainfall or from the water discharged into the catchwater drains from the adjacent highlands; and if these be not sufficient, then they may be supplemented by reservoirs of the proper dimensions attached to them. The best mode of arranging this is, of course, a matter of detail, keeping always in view the great principle of a thorough drainage and an ample supply of fresh water. The system that I have above explained is based upon the soundest principles of theory and practice, and therefore I feel no hesitation in recommending it.
With regard to the sewerage and drainage of towns, the same principle may be adopted, modified according to local circumstances. The drains here will require greater fall or inclination. The sewage should not be discharged into the watercourses, but into separate depôts at a proper distance from the dwellings. These depôts should be thoroughly ventilated, and the sewage deodorized by mixing it with earth, or some other suitable substance, that will not impair its value, and then it may be sold for manure; and thus instead of becoming a nuisance it may be turned to profitable account.
All rivers in densely populated countries should have their flood waters stored in capacious reservoirs, with proper sluices, in the main or adjacent subsidiary valleys, so that during the dry seasons there may be always an ample supply of good water for domestic and agricultural purposes, irrigation, and navigation. The reservoirs will also be advantageous in preventing the too frequent inundations and consequent devastation caused by floods.
In waterworks gravitation should be adopted wherever practicable, so that the source of supply shall be placed at such an elevation that it may command the highest part of the buildings to be supplied, thus all artificial power for pumping will be avoided. But in most cases, except where natural lakes can be found, it will be necessary to make settling or filtering reservoirs, from which the water when sufficiently pure may be delivered into the supply reservoirs, and both of these should be capacious enough to contain a sufficient supply for a month, more or less, according to the particular local circumstances. Last, but not least, the quality of the water for the proposed supply should be thoroughly tested chemically, in order to ascertain its purity; it should be as soft as possible, and be free from vegetable as well as all other matter prejudicial to health; and it must be obtained in sufficient quantity to guarantee a supply of thirty gallons a day to each inhabitant of the town, with the means of augmenting the supply at the same rate for any increase of inhabitants. The conduit which is to supply the service reservoir should be covered throughout, as well as the service reservoir, which of course should be occasionally cleansed; the other, or settling reservoir, near the fountain head, need not be covered if made large enough; that also should be cleansed as often as is necessary.
Where the water cannot be supplied by means of gravitation, then the artificial method of pumping by steam engines or water-wheels, or other means, must be adopted; but in this case also settling, filtering, and service reservoirs must be employed, as already described. It is unnecessary to remark that in all cases the reservoirs and conduits should be made thoroughly water-tight and impervious to any drainage water from the adjacent districts.
Docks may be divided into two classes, viz. floating and dry docks; the former may be designated as enclosed spaces filled with water, penned up to such depth as may be required for floating vessels of all classes. These docks or basins must be rendered water-tight, and in most cases it is necessary to surround them with nearly vertical walls, to economize space and to enable vessels to come alongside and discharge and receive cargoes.
With regard to the situation of these docks and designing the plans for them, this depends upon the local circumstances and the requirements of the particular class of vessels that they are to accommodate, and the trade that is to be carried on in them. Without a thorough knowledge of all these circumstances it is impossible to give anything like a correct opinion as to their dimensions, mode of designing them, or any other particulars. I may say generally, however, that as these docks are always situated contiguous to some river or harbour, either with or without the tidal ebb and flow, the position and direction of the entrances to the docks become of the greatest importance, in order that they may not be too much exposed, and that vessels may be enabled to enter and depart with the greatest facility; and in such part of the river or harbour where there is the greatest depth of water and the best channel outwards and inwards. There should also, as far as possible, be the means of supplying the basins with clear water, in order to diminish the amount of deposit within; there should also be a smaller or entrance basin adjoining the outer lock, the level of water in which can be more readily adjusted with that of the adjacent river or harbour, so that vessels may be taken into the docks with the greatest despatch out of the reach of the currents in the outer harbour, and without the necessity of lowering the surface of the water in the inner basin.
Floating docks in general should have dry docks attached to them, for the purpose of repairing vessels; and these dry docks should communicate by means of a tunnel or culvert with the tidal river or harbour.
With regard to the warehouse accommodation for receiving and delivering the different classes of merchandise brought to or taken out of the vessels frequenting the docks, these should as far as possible be made fire-proof, and should be properly adapted for the reception of the different articles placed in them, so that they may be stowed away in the most convenient manner and be readily accessible. Where space will permit it is desirable to keep the warehouses as low as possible; by this means the damage in the event of fire will be greatly reduced, and the expense of taking in and delivering goods considerably diminished, and the cost of construction lessened also.
Between the warehouses and the edge of the dock there should be sufficient space for a road all round the warehouses; and between the road and the edge of the dock there should be landing-sheds, so that the cargoes of vessels, when discharged, may be placed there, to be examined and sorted, and from thence taken away to their destination, or delivered into the warehouses, as occasion may require. All inflammable articles, such as oils, naphtha, turpentine, tar, pitch, jute, hemp, flax, &c., should be stowed away in low warehouses or covered sheds, completely isolated, and with the interior divided into distinct compartments, with access round each. These compartments should be no larger than necessary. Railways should be laid along all the quays, and should be carried through the ground floors of the whole of the warehouses, while the upper floors should also have rail or tramways through each division of goods, with the necessary turn-tables at their intersection with each other. These railways should be worked either by steam power or horse traction, as may be most advisable. All the quays and warehouses should be supplied with a sufficient number of cranes, of the requisite strength to lift and stow away the heaviest goods. These cranes should be worked either by hydraulic, steam, vacuum, manual, or animal power, as may be most advisable; in fact, they should be so designed that they may be worked either by the one or the other, as may be required.
Fresh water should be laid round all the quays and warehouses, through iron or glazed earthen pipes, and there should always be an ample supply, either for vessels frequenting the docks, or for extinguishing fires; and for this purpose capacious tanks or reservoirs should be established at the most convenient places; and if these reservoirs cannot be made at a sufficient height so as to command the highest warehouses, then the water should be forced through the hose attached to the supply-pipes by steam or other power, as shall be found most advisable. Gas, also, in properly fitted pipes, should be distributed over the quays and warehouses, and the movable lights should be as few as possible; those that are used should be properly guarded, so that all risk of fire from them may be avoided. No lucifer-matches should be permitted in any part of the establishment, nor should smoking be allowed. By these means the probabilities of fire will be reduced; and if, notwithstanding these precautions, a fire should break out, there will be the most ample provision for extinguishing it in the shortest possible time, and with the least damage to the property.