Secondly, there must be an adequate provision of training, special and general, accessible to all. Here, again, we are building on the firm rock of solid experience. The elementary schools have proved themselves to be schools for the cultivation of intelligence. With a year or two added to the school life; with the relief from that distracting influence which comes from wage-earning while at school; with the improved methods of teaching and a clearer differentiation of types of school to suit varying types of mind—reforms already under way—we may fairly hope for a general rise in the intelligence of the boys. The half-time school, with its three years’ course, will supply the more specialized training required in the different trades and occupations, while committees of employers will provide the expert criticism essential to success.
Finally, there must be the provision of an opening in some form of employment for which special preparation has been given. The Labour Exchange, the juvenile branch worked in close co-operation with the adult section, will supply the opening, while the technical training will give good guarantee for the adequacy of the preparation. The Elementary School, the Half-time School, the Education Authority, and the Advisory Committee, all acting together, will insure a safe passage from youth to manhood.
The new apprenticeship system is more complex than the old—it lacks something of the picturesqueness of the Middle Ages—but it finds its compensation in an organization at once more flexible and more comprehensive, and therefore better suited to stand the shock of those huge changes in methods of production and methods of living which have been the ungainly offspring of the industrial revolution.
LIST OF AUTHORITIES
I
PARLIAMENTARY AND MUNICIPAL PUBLICATIONS
Elementary Schools (Children Working for Wages), Parts I. and II., Parliamentary Return. 1899.
Report of the Interdepartmental Committee on the Employment of School-Children. 1901.
Report of the Departmental Committee on the Employment of Children Act, 1903. 1910.
Report of the Royal Commission on the Poor Laws and the Relief of Distress. 1909.
Report by Mr. Cyril Jackson on Boy Labour. 1909.
Report of the Commissioners of Prisons for the year ending March 31, 1908.
Report of the Chief Medical Officer of the Board of Education for the year 1909.
Report of the Consultative Committee of the Board of Education on Higher Elementary Schools. 1906.
Report of the Consultative Committee of the Board of Education on Attendance, Compulsory or Otherwise, at Continuation Schools. 2 vols., 1909.
Report on the By-Laws made by the London County Council under the Employment of Children Act, 1903, by Chester Jones. 1906.
London County Council Report of the Medical Officer (Education) for the year 1906.
London County Council Report of the Medical Officer (Education) for the year 1909.
London County Council: Medical Treatment of Children attending Elementary Schools—Report of Education Committee. 1909.
London County Council: Home Circumstances of Necessitous Children in Twelve Selected Schools. 1909.
London County Council: The Apprenticeship Question. 1906.
London County Council: Report of the Higher Education Sub-Committee on Apprenticeship: Agenda of Education Committee, February 24, 1909, pp. 412-425.
London County Council: Technical Education Board Report on the Building Trades. 1899.
London County Council: Report by Miss Durham, Inspector of Women’s Technical Classes on Juvenile Labour in Germany. 1910.
London County Council: Report by Mr. R. Blair (Education Officer) on Organization of Education in London. P. S. King and Son, Westminster.
County Council of Middlesex: Report by Mr. A. J. Bird (Inspector of Schools) on Employment Bureaux for Children of School-leaving Age.
Urban District Council of Finchley: Annual Report of the Medical Officer of Health, including the Report to the Education Committee for the year 1908.
Gloucestershire Education Committee: Report of the Minor Committee to consider Certain Proposals for the Creation of an Apprenticeship Fund and a Labour Bureau. 1907.
II
AUTHORS
Abraham and Davies: Factories and Workshops. 1902.
Abram, A.: Social Life in the Fifteenth Century. 1909.
Alden, Margaret: Child Life and Labour.
Ashley, W. J.: Introduction to English Economic History. 1888.
Beveridge, W. H.: Unemployment. 1909.
Black, Clementina: Sweated Industry. 1907.
Blair, R.: Some Features of American Education. 1904.
Booth, Charles: Life and Labour of the People, 9 vols. 1896.
Bray, Reginald A.: The Apprenticeship Question, in Economic Journal, September, 1909.
Bray, Reginald A.: The Town Child. 1907.
Christian Social Union: Report on the Employment of Boys in the London Area. 1910.
Continuation Schools in England and Elsewhere, edited by M. E. Sadler. 1907.
Creasey, Clarence H.: Technical Education in Evening Schools. 1905.
Crowley, Ralph H.: Hygiene of School Life. 1909.
Cuningham, W.: Growth of English Industry and Commerce: Early and Middle Ages. 1905.
Cuningham, W.: Growth of English Industry and Commerce: Modern Times, 2 vols. 1903.
Davies, Maude F.: Life in an English Village. 1909.
Frere, Margaret: Children’s Care Committees. 1909.
Gibb, The Rev. Spencer J.: The Problem of Boy Work. 1906.
Gibb, The Rev. Spencer J.: Boy Work and Unemployment. C.S.U. Pamphlet.
Gordon, Ogilvie: Handbook of Employments. 1908.
Green, J. R.: History of the English Peoples, vols. i. and iv. 1896.
Green, Mrs. J. R.: Town Life in the Fifteenth Century, 2 vols. 1894.
Hall, G. Stanley: Adolescence, 2 vols.
Hasbach, W.: History of the English Agricultural Labourer. 1908.
Hawkins, C. B.: Norwich: A Social Study. 1910.
Hayward, F. H.: Day and Evening Schools. 1910.
Hogarth, A. H.: Medical Inspection of Schools. 1909.
Hutchins and Harrison: A History of Factory Legislation. 1907.
Jackson, Cyril: Unemployment and Trade Unions. 1910.
Jebb, Eglantyne: Cambridge: A Brief Study in Social Questions. 1906.
Keeling, Frederic: The Labour Exchange in Relation to Boy and Girl Labour. 1910.
Kirkman, Gray B.: A History of English Philanthropy. 1905.
Kirkman, Gray B.: Philanthropy and the State.
Knowles, G. W.: Junior Labour Exchanges. 1910.
Macmillan, Margaret: Labour and Childhood. 1907.
Moseley: Educational Committee Report. 1904.
Nicholls, Sir G.: History of the English Poor Law. 1898.
Rogers, J. E. T.: Six Centuries of Work and Wages. 1884.
Rowntree, B. S.: Poverty: A Study of Town Life. 1901.
Russell, C. E. B.: Manchester Boys. 1905.
Russell and Rigby: The Making of the Criminal. 1906.
Russell and Rigby: Working Lads’ Clubs. 1908.
Shadwell, Arthur: Industrial Efficiency. 1909.
Studies of Boy Life in our Cities, edited by E. J. Urwick. 1904.
Tawney, R. H.: The Economics of Boy Labour, in Economic Journal, December, 1909.
Trades for London: Boys. Compiled by the Apprenticeship and Skilled Employment Committee. 1908.
Trades for London: Girls. Compiled by the Apprenticeship and Skilled Employment Committee. 1909.
Tuckwell and Smith: The Workers’ Handbook. 1908.
Webb, Sidney and Beatrice: History of Trade Unionism. 1907.
Webb, Sidney and Beatrice: Industrial Democracy, 2 vols. 1897.
INDEX
Abraham and Davies, 45, 49, 53
Abram, A., 9
Adler, Miss, 106
Adolescence, vi, 176, 198
Agricultural Gangs Act, 42
Apprentices, statute of, 13-15;
effect, 16, 17;
pauper, 15, 17-19;
repeal, 22
Apprenticeship, break-up of, 165-175
charities, 19;
decay, 25, 135, 164, 165-175, 177;
difficulties of, 12, 188;
essentials, 43, 237;
indentured, 5, 135, 187-189;
meaning, 1;
under gilds, 4-11, 234, 237;
under industrial revolution, 26-29;
under statute, 11-19;
universal, 3, 13, 189
of to-day: contribution of home, 92-103;
of philanthropy, 89-92;
of State, 73-74, 76-89;
of workshop, 103-165
the new: Juvenile Labour Exchange, 231-231;
new half-time, 191, 197-202;
prohibition of employment, 191, 195-197;
raising school age, 191-195, 217;
summary, 231-240
Ashby, W. J., 4
Attendance at school, Acts relating to, 38, 46-48;
percentage of, 83, 106, 105
Blair, R., 86
“Blind-alley” occupations, 87, 112, 123-130, 145, 157, 158, 163, 169-172, 180, 227
Board of Education, 61, 64
Board of Trade, 71, 72, 223, 233
Booth, C., 95, 104, 136, 139
Borstal Association, 169
Boy labour: difficulties of regulation, 79, 80;
effects of regulation, 77-82, 88, 89
half-time, 49-52, 78, 197-202, 204, 205
health and safety, 52-58, 77, 197-202
limitation of hours, 43-52, 197-202
prohibition of, 41-43, 195-197, 203, 204
regulation under gilds, 7-11, 234, 237;
under industrial revolution, 20-25;
under statute, 13, 14
Boys: clubs, 90;
errand, 82, 112, 119, 129, 145;
lather, 43;
office, 119, 126, 158;
shop, 122, 126, 128, 145;
telegraph, 126, 131, 145;
van, 82, 119, 145
Boys: employment of, at school, 103-113, 151-155;
on leaving school, 114-119, 163;
entering manhood, 143
unemployed, 119;
under London County Council, 132
Bursaries, 65
Chamber of Commerce, 230
Chapman, Professor, 211
Child, definition of, 40
Children Act, 38, 59, 61, 80
Children, employment of. See Boys
Chimney Sweepers Act, 42
Cloete, J. G., 126, 129
Coal Mines Regulation Act, 38, 42
Competition, 177, 235
Cuningham, W., 4, 6, 10, 16, 20, 22, 28
Davies, Miss Maude, 161, 164
Distribution of trades, 115-118, 142-149, 163;
normal, 147-149
Durham, Miss, 196, 228
Economic Journal, 116, 159
Education Acts, 1902-03, 62
Administrative Provisions Act, 1907, 58, 60, 61
Provision of Meals Act, 61
Employment of children. See Boys
Employment of Children Act, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 46, 48, 57, 58, 77, 80, 81, 111, 166
Factory legislation, causes of, 30
Factory and Workshops Act, 38, 168;
authority for enforcement, 40, 51;
definitions, 39-41;
effects of, 77, 81, 82, 88;
half-time, 49-51;
health and safety, 52-56;
limitation of hours, 43-52;
prohibition of employment, 41, 42
Furness, Sir Christopher, 213
Gibb, Spencer J., 124, 158
Gilds, 4-11, 234, 237
Girls, vii
Green, Mrs. J. R., 12
Half-time system, 49-51, 78, 197-203, 204-205
Hall, G. Stanley, vi
Hasbach, W., 25
Health and Morals of Apprentices Act, 17, 18, 23, 29
Hutchins and Harrison, 23, 29
Idealist, triumph of, 28
Indenture, old, 6
Individualist, triumph of, 32-34
Industrial revolution, 20-26;
effects of, 26-29, 173-175;
characteristics, 177-185
schools, 61
Jackson, Cyril. See Report on Boy Labour
Labour Exchange, 70, 125;
Juvenile, 71, 72, 83, 201, 221-231, 232-240
Lather-boy. See Boys
London, employment of school-children, 105-113;
entry to a trade, 113-142;
passage to manhood, 142-151
Medical certificate, 56, 57, 58
inspection, 58, 60, 61, 85, 86, 94, 168, 197, 231, 232, 233, 238, 239
Messenger-boy. See Boys
Metalliferous Mines Regulation Act, 38
Mines (Prohibition of Child Labour Underground) Act, 38, 41
Necessitous children, 94, 95
Nicholls, Sir G., 18
Occupations, clerical, 140-142;
distribution of, 115-120, 143, 142-149, 163;
skilled, 132-140;
unskilled, 112, 121-133
Office-boy. See Boys
Opening. See Provision of
Poor Law, Elizabethan, 15;
Amendment Act, 23-26;
Report of Royal Commission. See Reports
Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act, 38, 42
Provision of opening, need for, 2;
Labour Exchange, 70-72, 221-231, 240;
under gilds, 8-11;
under industrial revolution, 20-26
Report of Board of Education, 64
of Commissioners for Prisons, 169
of Consultative Committee on Continuation School, 47, 81, 154, 192, 201
of Consultative Committee on Higher Elementary Schools, 214
of Departmental Committee on Employment of Children Act, 81, 125
of Interdepartmental Committee on Employment of Children, 51, 110, 152
of London County Council on Apprenticeship, 66, 115, 128, 135, 136, 139, 140, 143, 187, 192, 194
of Medical Officer, Board of Education, 152, 174
of Medical Officer (Education) of London County Council, 96, 109, 110
Report of Poor Law Commission, 31, 104, 155, 156, 172, 191, 192, 206, 209, 210, 211, 213
Report on Boy Labour, by Mr. Cyril Jackson, 104, 123, 124, 125, 128, 129, 131, 144, 145, 146, 156, 157
on Home Circumstances of Necessitous Children, 95
Rogers, J. E. Thorold, 5
Rural Districts, 161-165
Sadler, M. E., 157, 171, 195
Scholarships, 66-68, 86, 232
School: age, 46-48, 192-195;
central, 64, 65;
elementary, 46, 47, 63-65, 83-86, 218, 224, 231;
evening, 60, 67, 69, 86;
industrial, 59, 61;
part-time, 68, 132, 187, 218-221, 231;
secondary, 60, 67, 86, 232;
Sunday, 89;
technical and trade, 60, 66, 68, 208
Scott-Holland, Canon, 124
Shop-boy. See Boys
Shop Hours Act, 38, 46, 79, 81
Skilled Employment Committees, 91, 92, 185
Supervision, need for, 2;
under gilds, 8-11;
under statute, 13-15;
under industrial revolution, 20-26;
by State regulation, 37-58;
by State enterprise, 59-70;
effects of State, 76-88;
by philanthropy, 89-92;
in home, 92-103;
in workshop, 125;
in London, summary, 149, 150;
general summary, 165-168;
under new apprenticeship, 191-202, 221-231, 237, 238
Tawney, R. L., 159, 160
Technical instruction. See Schools
Trades, distribution of, 115-120, 142-149, 163;
picking up, 136-140;
skilled, 133-142, 208-214, 218, 239;
unskilled, 112, 121-133, 155-160, 165-175, 208, 215, 216, 219, 239
Training, need for, 2;
under gilds, 9-12;
under statute, 13, 14;
under industrial revolution, 20-27;
in single operation, 21, 137-139;
in elementary schools, 63-65;
in continuation schools, 65-70;
in workshops, 111-113, 121-142, 165-175;
in new apprenticeships, 207-221, 233
Van-boy. See Boys
Webb, Sidney and Beatrice, 8, 21, 22
Young person, 40, 44-46, 81, 83
THE END
BILLING AND SONS, LTD., PRINTERS, GUILDFORD
Footnotes:
[1] G. Stanley Hall, “Adolescence,” vol. ii., p. 83.
[2] See, for a general description of gilds, “Economic History,” by W. J. Ashby; “Growth of English History and Commerce: Early and Middle Ages.” by W. Cunningham.
[3] J. E. Thorold Rogers, “Six Centuries of Work and Wages,” p. 566.
[4] Quoted, Cunningham, pp. 349-350.
[5] Sidney and Beatrice Webb, “A History of Trade Unionism,” p. 17.
[6] Cunningham, p. 460.
[7] Ibid., p. 345.
[8] A. Abiam, “Social England in the Fifteenth Century,” p. 118.
[9] Cunningham, p. 509.
[10] Mrs. J. R. Green, “Town Life in the Fifteenth Century,” vol. ii., p. 102.
[11] 5 Elizabeth, Cap. iv.
[12] Sect. 3.
[13] Sect. 25.
[14] Sect. 26.
[15] Sect. 31.
[16] 5 Elizabeth, Cap. iv., Sect. 35.
[17] 43 Elizabeth, Cap. ii., Sect. 5. Similar powers had been given to Justices of the Peace in earlier Acts (see 27 Henry VIII., Cap. xxv.; Edw. VI., Cap. iii.)
[18] W. Cunningham, “Growth of English Industry and Commerce in Modern Times,” pp. 29-30.
[19] Ibid., p. 33.
[20] See 3 Chas. I., Cap. v.
[21] Sir G. Nicholls, “History of the Poor Law,” vol. ii., p. 223 et seq. 1898.
[22] James I., Cap. iii.
[23] Cunningham, p. 615.