THE MUNICIPAL THEATRE, RIO DE JANEIRO.
The municipal theatre is one of these buildings that one will find in all the larger cities, where social life has attained anything of a metropolitan development, and even in smaller towns, where that stage has not been reached. It is constructed with the same care and regard for artistic proportions as the municipal building or the governmental palace, and, in many instances, with even more taste. The teatro municipal, as it is always named, is almost invariably built in an open place, where the view is unobstructed, while many of the public edifices are crowded up to the street line, and often hemmed in between surrounding buildings. Frequently it is exposed on all four sides, and an effort is made to give it an artistic appearance from whatever angle it is viewed, instead of limiting the artistic touches to the façade. Public money has been used for the construction of these buildings, and money from the same source, either municipal or national, is used to provide for the presentation of the drama or opera. It is only in this way that the best Italian, French, Portuguese and Spanish artists could ever be brought to Latin America, for the box receipts alone would not prove profitable. No one dreams of objecting to the use of the public money in this way, for the idea is inbred, and in accordance with the traditions of the race. This idea of practically subsidizing things artistic sounds strange to Anglo-Saxon ears, but among the Latins it is considered a proper function of government.
THE MUNICIPAL THEATRE, SÃO PAULO.
There are many beautiful opera houses in Brazil. At Manaos, a thousand miles up the Amazon, in a city surrounded on all sides by almost impenetrable forests, stands the Amazonas Theatre, a structure finished in white marble and richly decorated with allegorical paintings, the cost of which exceeded a million dollars in gold. In Pará, near the mouth of the same stream, is the La Paz Theatre, built by the state government, and which is a beautiful structure. Pernambuco, Bahia and many other cities have creditable theatres, but the teatro municipal of Rio de Janeiro, and the one at São Paulo, are the finest examples in Brazil, and perhaps in all of South America. The municipal theatre in São Paulo has not been entirely completed, although it has been in course of construction for several years. The interior and exterior are both richly decorated, the exterior with statues and allegorical designs, the interior with paintings. The musicians’ stand is below the level of the orchestra seats in accordance with the Wagner system. The total cost will be about two million dollars in gold. The municipal theatre of Rio with its marble front, bronze decorations and beautiful dome one hundred and forty-seven and one-half feet high, which gives a crown effect, is the handsomest public building in that capital, and cost considerably more than the one at São Paulo. These municipal theatres are sometimes rented for other public functions, but in general the dignity and character of the entertainments is preserved.
CHAPTER XII
RAILWAYS AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT
Brazil has an excellent system of fluvial waterways throughout the Amazon district, where this great river and its many affluents give access to nearly every part of that basin. Upon these streams boats are run at regular or irregular intervals, which make connections with the regular lines on the Amazon running to Pará. The Amazon Steamship Company maintains forty small vessels on the Amazon and its tributaries, and there are other smaller companies operating in the same waters. Regular lines of steamers ply to the United States and Europe from Iquitos, Manaos and Pará. It will never be necessary, perhaps, to construct railroads through this richly watered country, except where rapids obstruct navigation, for railroad construction is difficult and the cost of transportation would necessarily be much more expensive. Coast lines run from Pará as far down as Rio de Janeiro, a journey of ten days to two weeks, including the various stops that are usually made. From Rio there are many lines that touch at Santos, and two Brazilian lines that run down as far as Rio Grande do Sul, the southernmost port. There is also communication by steamer from Rio up the Plata, Paraguay and Paraná Rivers to Cuyaba, capital of the state of Matto Grosso. In all there are several hundred vessels flying the Brazilian flag and operating either along the coast or on the rivers of the republic.
In the matter of railway communication there is very much to be desired still. There are in the entire republic to-day about twelve thousand miles of railway in operation. These lines are being extended at the rate of a few hundred miles each year. For the year 1909 the increase in mileage amounted to about six hundred miles. These extensions are being pushed out by a number of different lines into regions hitherto untouched by railway communication. These new lines have nearly all had a certain return, generally six per cent., guaranteed upon the capital invested by the federal or state governments. It speaks well for the condition of the country when one finds that many of these guarantees have never been called upon, for, almost from the very start, the traffic received has paid the running expenses, and even greater returns than those guaranteed to the company.
The great need of the country is a longitudinal railway, so that there will be continuous communication between Pará, at one extreme, and Rio Grande do Sul, at the other. In this respect better progress has been made in southern Brazil than in the northern part. It will not be many months, after this book is issued, until there will be an all rail route from Rio Grande do Sul to Rio de Janeiro, and from there for a considerable distance up into the state of Minas Geraes. This does not cover more than half of the distance, however, and it will be necessary to construct many hundreds of kilometres of the parallel iron rails before the project reaches completion. Pará, Camocim, Fortaleza, Pernambuco, Bahia, and other ports, have railroads which run inland for a greater or less distance, but are not connected up with the other systems. This makes it necessary for the passenger to take ship in going from one port to another, and for freight to be loaded upon steamers in order to reach the other than local markets of the country.
The local freight rates are so high, too, that it is often cheaper to ship freight from a European port to the capital, for instance, than to ship the same amount of freight from another part of the republic. This excessive charge for railway haul is a short-sighted policy, and does not tend to build up a local interchange between the different sections of the country. On the government railroad, the Central, the freight rates are so high between São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, a distance of only three hundred miles, that it is cheaper to ship goods from the former city to Santos at high rates, transship them to a steamer, and pay port dues as well as loading and unloading charges at each end, than to forward over the railroad. It is a condition that the government could and should regulate, and it has been talked about many times; but, like many political projects, it has ended in talk. At the present time a commission has this matter in charge, and it remains to be seen what they will do.
What might be called the backbone of the railroad system of Brazil is the Estrado de Ferro Central do Brazil. This is one of the oldest lines in the country. There were about forty miles of it open to traffic as early as 1858. It was formerly known as the Dom Pedro II Railway, in honour of the Emperor, but upon the establishment of the republic the name was changed to the Central. The construction was first undertaken by an American company, but it was later taken over by the Imperial Government and completed by them to the city of São Paulo. The development and extension of the line has been almost continuous, until at the present time more than one thousand miles are in operation by this government railroad. The most of the track is of standard gauge, the same as the American lines, although a part of it is of the narrow gauge, one metre in width. The main line runs to São Paulo, and that is an important line, for it is the only railroad running to the important states of the south. The train service is good, and it pleases one to see American locomotives at the head of nearly all the trains, and many of the cars were built in American shops. The passenger coaches on all the Brazilian lines open at the end after the American plan, but the freight cars are built after the English models.
An important branch of this system is that which runs through Juiz de Fora, and to and beyond Bello Horizonte, in the State of Minas. This line passes through an important and well-settled section of the country, and is bringing the towns and rich valleys of that great state into direct communication with the capital. The upper part of this branch is narrow gauge, and it is being pushed northward to tap the rich mineral section of the state, where it is said that there are great quantities of manganese and other minerals awaiting development. Another branch is reaching out toward Diamantina, the famous diamond centre in Brazil. It seems to me that the government can not do better for itself, or for the people, than to spend just as much money as is possible in the development of these railway lines, for the land is already settled by a great many people, and easy communication will aid in inducing new settlers to locate there. Furthermore, railway communication is one of the best means in the world to unite the different sections of the country, and develop a national as well as patriotic spirit. The people of the states will feel that they have something in common, and interchange of traffic will also bring about a better acquaintance among the citizens of the various states. The operation of the Central Railroad has not been very successful from a financial standpoint, as too many sinecures have been created for political favourites. The cost of operation has always been excessive.
The Paulista Railway was the first railroad to be constructed entirely of Brazilian capital. Its tracks begin at Jundiahy, although its trains are run into the city of São Paulo. The proposition for this railroad was first offered to British capital, but they turned down what proved to be a veritable gold mine. The first work on this line was begun in 1870, and its tracks have been gradually extended until now it operates about seven hundred miles of road, about one-third of which is standard and the balance metre gauge. It reaches to Bebedouroa and Pontat, with branches to Jahu and other points. By the original contract the government guaranteed seven per cent. on the investment required, but this guarantee was later released by the company in return for some other favours. It has the right to raise tariffs in order to keep the investment on a seven per cent. basis, but the present high freight rates yield returns far in excess of that. One part of the concession of this road is a privileged zone of nearly twenty miles on each side, within which district it has the exclusive right of both passenger and freight traffic. It reaches up into the terra roxa, the red earth where the blood-red soil dyes everything its own colour. This is the coffee land, the great freight producer for this line. In one year, 1906, this line carried nearly ten million bags of coffee, each bag weighing about one hundred and thirty-two pounds, besides all the other miscellaneous freight.
The Mogyana Railway is another narrow gauge railroad which starts at Campinas, and runs in a northerly direction up through the coffee country. It was started shortly after the Paulista Railway, and upon practically the same guaranty of the investment, and the same rights to exclusive territory. Branches have been built for feeders, and the main line has been extended, until now this company has a mileage of more than eight hundred miles. The road was evidently built by the kilometre, and the contractors got in as many kilometres between given points as possible. Beautiful curves abound everywhere, and it would be difficult to find a straight half-mile of track between Campinas and Riberão Preto, a distance of about two hundred miles. The line is well built and is now being ballasted. A few sections have been straightened out, but it contains dozens of unnecessary and nerve-racking curves. This railway is also a great freight producer, especially for coffee. It has paid dividends of twelve per cent. for several years, and could probably have paid more except for charter restrictions. The furthermost point now reached by this railroad is Araguary, in the state of Minas Geraes. From Araguary this company has in contemplation the extension of its line to Goyaz, in the state of Goyaz. For the good of the country it is to be hoped that this project will be carried out in the near future.
Goyaz is as large as France, Belgium, Holland and England combined, is very similar in topography to Minas Geraes, and also contains considerable mineral wealth. Politically it is in the centre of the republic. The maps show a great square block in this state which is marked “site for the future capital of Brazil.” It will be many years, however, before this project will be realized, and not until railroads are constructed, for at the present time there is not a mile of railroad track in the state. The site is a delightful one among the mountains. There are splendid natural resources in Goyaz, but the population scarcely exceeds one to the square mile. The river Maranhão traverses the state, almost from one end to the other, and it is navigable by small vessels for hundreds of miles within the state. The Araguaya marks the western boundary, and is also navigable for a long distance. Both of these rivers are affluents of the Tocantins, which pours its waters into the Amazon flood.
The Sorocabana Railway system is an important line in this section of the state and promises much for its future development, as it is pushing extensions in several directions. It is now operated by an American corporation made up of Canadian, American and English capitalists. The main line begins at São Paulo, and then branches out in several different directions, northwest, west and southwest, and will eventually be the connecting link between the trunk lines to the western and southern states. It is thus destined to be one of the greatest railroad systems in the republic. The Sorocabana is also a narrow gauge railway. It has a government guarantee of six and seven per cent., and a privileged zone on each side gives it a local monopoly. This company took the lines over from the state government of São Paulo, and they have obtained a number of valuable privileges.
The Sorocabana Railway Company now operates about seven hundred miles of railroad. One branch has its terminus at Jundiahy, and from there runs through the important city of Piracicaba. From Jundiahy to Piracicaba it passes through a great deal of undeveloped country, but at the latter place it reaches one of the prettiest sections I have seen in Brazil. As far as the eye can reach the eye falls upon cultivated fields of coffee, sugar cane, corn, fruit, etc. In the distance the horizon is everywhere bounded by the hills, which seem to form a frame for the picture. The city itself is clean and attractive, with wide streets, and beautiful plazas. It is situated on a knoll with all the streets slightly sloping down, so that in the distance one can see the green fields and boundary of mountains. It has a good sugar factory, owned by a French syndicate, a cotton mill and other industries. The finest sight is the falls on the Piracicaba River, which are within the city itself. These falls are beautiful and furnish thousands of horse power, only a portion of which is now utilized.
The main line extends from São Paulo to Bauru, a distance of three hundred miles, and passes through some rich coffee lands which are now being developed.
At Bauru the Sorocabana connects with the Nord Oeste do Brazil (Northwestern), which is a projected line to run across the immense state of Matto Grosso and into Bolivia. The projectors believe that this line will eventually be a part of the proposed Pan American railroad. Construction has been completed up to Itapura, on the Tieté River near its junction with the Alta Paraná, and trains are now running to that village. The most of the line after Bauru follows the general course of the Tieté River, and passes through an entirely undeveloped country, much of which is forest land where large quantities of fine hardwood timber are found. This is the first railroad to touch the borders of the great undeveloped state of Matto Grosso, and it means much for that state. At Miranda, a hundred miles or more of grade has been completed, and work is being pushed from that town toward Itapura. Materials and supplies are sent up through the Rio de la Plata and its connections. Many hundreds of miles of this projected trunk line have not yet been touched, although preliminary surveys have been made over the entire distance.
To the southwest the Sorocabana Railway passes through rich coffee and cotton lands to Itarare. Here it connects with the São Paulo-Rio Grande Railway, which is also one of the important links in the lines connecting up the Southern states, Uruguay and Argentina. From Itarare the São Paulo-Rio Grande Railway runs in a southerly direction through Ponta Grossa, to the banks of the Uruguay River, where it will connect with the Santa Maria and Uruguay Railway. It already has in operation over four hundred miles. Only a couple of hundred miles are uncompleted to make a continuous line, with the various connections, from Rio de Janeiro to Rio Grande do Sul, and Montevideo, Uruguay. The charter of this company also involves the building of a railroad from the port of São Francisco at right angles to and crossing the main line, following the Iguassú River to where it empties into the Alta Paraná. The concession of this line gives it all the unoccupied lands on either side for six miles, with the obligation to settle the same within fifty years. This was done by the government to induce the railroad company to encourage immigration, and populate the country. The company also agrees to settle one block of land with immigrants for each one hundred kilometres of track, each block to contain one hundred lots suitable for agriculture or cattle raising, within two years after the approval of each completed section.
The Santa Maria and Uruguay Railway runs at present from near Passo Fundo, south through Cruz Alta to Santa Maria, where it connects with the line which crosses the state of Rio Grande do Sul, from the prosperous port of Porto Alegre to Uruguayana, on the Uruguay River, the boundary line with Argentina, and there connects with the lines of that republic. This railroad passes through a rich country, and along its line many colonies have been established which have become very prosperous. The climate of this state is cooler, and resembles that of large sections of the United States. At Cacequy there is a branch to the city of Bagé, where numerous xarqueados are established, and from there runs to Pelotas and the city of Rio Grande. From near Bagé, also, a branch is being extended toward the borders of Uruguay, and probably before this book appears there will be continuous communication by this route with Montevideo, the capital of that republic.
From Montevideo it is but a few hours ride by comfortable steamer to Buenos Aires, where connection is made with the extensive railway systems of that republic. By way of the Buenos Aires al Pacifico and Transandine lines through rail communication now exists to Valparaiso and Santiago, Chile, and the rich “Valley of Paradise,” south of the latter city. In a year or two also it will be possible to go by rail from Buenos Aires, via the Central Argentina and the government lines, up to La Paz, the capital of Bolivia. The Peruvian government has also a project for a railroad across the Andes from Lima to La Paz, although this is far from being realized as yet. It simply gives an idea of the railway development that has taken place, and what is projected for the future.
North of Rio de Janeiro there has not been so much or so systematic railway development, as there has been south of the federal capital. The principal company operating in that direction, the Leopoldina Railway, is also the company having the greatest mileage of any road in the republic. Its lines traverse the states of Rio de Janeiro, Espirito Santo and Minas Geraes, and have a total mileage of over eighteen hundred miles. This system has been made up by the consolidation of a number of different lines. Hitherto it has not been able to run its track into the city of Rio de Janeiro, because of the opposition of the Central, which road claimed a monopoly. Its terminals have been at Nictheroy across the bay, and at Mauá. At last the right was granted, a depot constructed, and, by this time, the trains of the Leopoldina Railway will be running into the capital city. They promise service from that city to Petropolis in a little over an hour, instead of two hours by the present combination of rail and boat. This line taps rich coffee and sugar lands, reaches back into the mineral section of Minas Geraes, and passes near lands where fine timbers, such as rosewood, abound. It also connects with the port of Victoria, which is destined to be an important port for the products of this district. One of the lines is gradually being pushed up toward Bahia, and will eventually connect with the lines of that state, of which there are three or four spurs that spread inland in different directions from the city of Bahia.
The state of Espirito Santo (Holy Spirit) tapped by the Leopoldina system, stretches along the Atlantic coast for nearly three hundred miles. With an area of twenty thousand square miles it has a population of less than twelve to the square mile. It is a tropical state with much rain and dense vegetation along the coast lowlands. The capital city, Victoria, has a good harbour which is now being improved by the national government. In coffee shipments this port ranks third in importance. A railroad is also being constructed from Victoria to Diamantina, but progress up to date has been rather slow.
The next largest system in northern Brazil is the Great Western Railway, whose lines run from Maceio, in the state of Alagoas, through Recife, or Pernambuco, capital of the state of that name, Parahyba, capital of the state of Parahyba, and ending at Natal, capital and chief seaport of the state of Rio Grande do Norte. A number of branches wind their tortuous way inland, and each year extensions are being made. The total length of the lines of this company now exceed nine hundred miles, upon all of which a government guarantee of at least six per cent. exists. These lines were formerly operated under several different names, but have recently been consolidated.
In the state of Ceará there are two railways. One connects the port and capital city, Fortaleza, with Senador Pompeu, a couple of hundred miles inland; another line runs from the port of Camocim to the interior town of Ipu. A short railway connects Caxias, on the river Itapucurú, with Floris, on the Paranahyba River. This is the only railway in the state of Maranhão, the sixth state in the republic and as large as Texas. Its natural resources have hardly been investigated, but they are no doubt very rich. St. Luiz is the capital and one of the ports. The adjoining state of Piauhy has no railroad. There is, however, excellent river communication with the seaports. A railway is projected from the port of Santo Luiz to run down and connect with the line now running from Bahia north. From Belem, or Pará, there is one short railroad that runs to Braganca, a distance of about one hundred miles.
The Madeira-Mamoré railroad is an isolated railroad, being built in the western part of Brazil by an American company under contract with the Brazilian government. One must go a thousand miles up the Amazon, and then six hundred and sixty miles up the Madeira River to Santo Antonio de Rio Madeira, where this line begins, and which is in the very heart of South America. Above the rapids there are several hundred more miles of navigable waters, upon which a service of steamers is maintained. There are few people in that section of the country, and it may never be popular with immigrants. The line is being constructed in pursuance of an agreement with the Republic of Bolivia when the Acre (pronounced Ack´ray) territory was ceded by that government to Brazil. The rich eastern slope and fertile plains of Bolivia are practically bottled up. Its products, including a large rubber and cacao production, either had to be transported over the Andes, or around a couple of hundred miles of rapids and cataracts on the Madeira River, to the part of the stream where navigation is uninterrupted. From there they were carried down on steamers to Manaos, or Pará, and then to the markets of the world by ocean-going vessels. This line will be about two hundred miles in length, and will open up one of the richest sections of Bolivia, a part of Peru, which also borders on the Acre territory, and the rich territory itself, which produces a large amount of rubber and cacao, and much of which has never been exploited at all. Many native Indians inhabit this section, and their little rafts and row boats navigate all the streams. In these the Indian rubber gatherers visit the different sections, tap the trees, and bring the rubber to the establishments of the various companies engaged in the rubber trade, which may be found in many places.
The first sod for this railway was turned in 1871, but this auspicious beginning soon ended in disaster. Again, in 1878, a second attempt was made, and work was prosecuted faithfully for a year. A survey was cut through the almost impenetrable forest, and four miles of track were completed. At that time, however, sanitation was not understood as well as now, and the great mortality stopped the work, as it did in Panama. This time a sensible beginning was made by first looking after the health conditions, and practically the same methods are employed as are followed by the United States on the Isthmus. Sanitary buildings were erected with provision made against infection from mosquito bites, and a fully equipped hospital was built and furnished. By these means the health of the twenty-five hundred employees has been looked after in a thoroughly scientific way. At the present writing about fifty miles of track have been completed, and a dozen engines are already at work. Forces of workmen are engaged in cutting down the forest, grading, laying track and rails, and all the other processes incidental to building a railroad. Nature has not changed one iota, for malarial fever is still malarial fever, the rainfall is as great as ever, and vegetation is just as luxuriant; but science has taught man how to conquer nature, and it will not be many years until locomotives will be hauling freight and passengers around these falls in a few hours, where formerly it required weeks. Americans may take a pardonable interest in this project, for it is American energy and American equipment that is doing the work.
THE SÃO PAULO RAILWAY, NEAR SANTOS.
I have reserved for the last one of the most important, as well as one of the most interesting railroads in the world, the São Paulo Railway. This line is important, not from the amount of mileage, for it only runs from the port of Santos to Jundiahy, a distance of about one hundred miles, but because of the amount of freight shipped over it. It is the only railroad in the state of São Paulo running to the coast, and all the products of that state are shipped over it. Two-thirds or more of the world’s coffee is produced in Brazil, and of this three-fourths is shipped from this one port, and all of it hauled over this one road. As high as thirteen million sacks of coffee, weighing sixty kilograms each, have been shipped from this port in a single year. It has a monopoly of thirty-one kilometers on each side of the track. This restriction heretofore has prevented any other railroad from entering Santos, although both the Mogyana and the Sorocobana have surveyed routes and projected lines to it, because of the excessive freight rates charged. Both of the other roads are narrow gauge, and the expense of reloading for a short journey, and the rates demanded by this monopolistic line, are a big drain on the revenues of the other railroads.
The São Paulo Railway originally held a seven per cent. guarantee from the government, but this was long ago released. Its earnings have been so great in some years that the company did not know what to do with the surplus. It was allowed to pay only twelve per cent. to the stockholders, and the balance must either be paid to the state or the rates reduced. Unwilling to do either, this company has built fine stations where there are not more than a score of people, and has expended money in every way to keep down the net earnings under that sum. For six miles, soon after leaving Santos, the road climbs the Serra do Mar by means of cables. This is divided into four sections, each with its own power station. The trains are run in sections of three or four cars each, with an engine on each section. One section goes up as another comes down on each cable. A few years ago the traffic became so congested that it was necessary to construct a second roadway over the Serra, the one roadbed being considerably lower than the other. The mountainside is paved in some places to prevent landslides. Water courses and gullys of masonry and cement have been constructed everywhere to carry away the rain, which sometimes falls here with almost the force of a cloudburst. The road is well ballasted with a crushed stone found in the hills which is as hard as granite. The Luz station in the city of São Paulo, belonging to this company, is by far the finest station in South America, and one of the finest in the world. The railroad is owned by an English company, and the engines and equipment are distinctly English, and the entire track is built with the care and precision of an English railroad, with an overhead bridge or tunnel at each station to pass from the station on one side of the track to that on the other. The road has only one little branch in addition to the main line.
CHAPTER XIII
COFFEE
Brazil is not only the land where the nuts come from, but it is also the land where the world’s coffee comes from as well. Two-thirds, and possibly three-fourths, of all the coffee used in the world is produced by this one great country. It matters little whether your grocer labels your coffee Mocha, Java, or any other name, it is a pretty safe guess to say that it was raised in Brazil. Richer than gold have proven the stretches of red soil where this berry grows. This soil occurs at intervals from the state of Pernambuco south almost to Rio Grande do Sul, the southernmost state. Of Brazil’s production three-fourths or more is grown in the state of São Paulo, thus making the production of this one state alone more than half of the world’s production. Considering the enormous quantity of coffee consumed, this product and its cultivation in Brazil becomes of world-wide interest.
The name coffee is derived from Kaffa, a town in Arabia, where it was first grown. Coffee began to be introduced into Europe in the fifteenth century, where coffee houses were established and soon became very popular. In Turkey and England they later came under royal displeasure; in the former country, because the seduction of the beverage kept the people from the services of the mosque, and caused them to ignore the hours for prayer; in the latter, because the coffee houses were believed to be places of sedition, and disloyalty to the crown. In spite of royal displeasure and the restrictions of the government, however, the use of the coffee beverage continually grew, and the restrictive measures seemed to have little effect on its use.
About the middle of the eighteenth century the cultivation was introduced into the New World, in Guatemala, Mexico, the West Indies and Brazil. In the latter country it is said to have been introduced about 1761, by a deserter who came to that country and brought with him a few seeds. Its cultivation was, however, on a very small scale for a number of decades, but was gradually introduced into a number of states where it was found adapted to the soil. It was not until early in the nineteenth century that the cultivation of this plant on a large scale was begun at Campinas, and within a few years the production had reached an important figure. In the first year of that century it is said that two bags were sent to foreign markets from Brazil. A dozen years later the shipment of bags was numbered by the thousands, until, in 1817, the exports are reported to have been in excess of sixty thousand bags. The state of São Paulo from the very first took the lead in production of coffee, as the soil of that state seemed especially adapted to its cultivation. In this state alone, at the present time, it is estimated that there are nearly seven hundred millions of trees, and the annual production will average more than ten million sacks, or one billion three hundred and twenty million pounds of this berry. These figures will not be materially altered for several years, because of the restrictive legislation prohibiting the planting of new trees, which will be explained more in detail later.
Successful cultivation of coffee, like that of almost any other valuable crop, requires certain conditions of soil and climate. These are a rich earth, a certain rarefication of air and plenty of moisture. The terra roxa (red earth) of Brazil is very rich, and is the result of the decomposition of rocks of basaltic origin. The best lands are at an altitude of one thousand five hundred feet, or more, above sea level and require eighty inches or more of annual rainfall. Furthermore, hilly lands with an eastern exposure are generally chosen. Although plantations are sometimes found on comparatively level ground. Too much or too little moisture, or a frost, will spoil a season’s crop. A coffee field, with its trees laid out in regular rows stretching as far as the eye can see to the top of the hills in either direction, is a beautiful sight. In the foreground the rows of trees, with the roads at regular intervals and the contrast of green against the red soil, are plainly visible; but, as distance increases, they blend together until the whole seems a field of living green, gently swaying in the breeze. Like a great panorama these fields spread out in every direction in the neighbourhood of Riberão Preto, the centre of the richest coffee district.
Coffee trees are a matter of slow growth, requiring at least four years to mature after the young plants are set out. The seed is always planted in the woods, where patches are cleared for that purpose, and where the necessary shade and moisture are found. They are always transplanted during the rainy season, when about eighteen months old and perhaps a foot high, and during this work the tender plants are handled very carefully. In many countries the young trees are shaded by banana stalks, but that method is not followed in Brazil. Corn is oftentimes planted between the rows of coffee trees to bring an extra crop, but this method is not approved by the best planters, as coffee trees exhaust the soil rapidly enough by themselves. On some of the old fazendas the plants are set in rows not more than eight or ten feet apart, but the newer plantations are at a distance of from twelve to fifteen feet. The trees are carefully pruned, and the ground weeded each year, and a crop will be produced about the fifth year after planting. If the trees are left to grow untrimmed they will reach a height of eighteen or twenty feet, but they are usually kept down to a height of about twelve feet, or less, and are not allowed to spread out too much. One quickly learns to distinguish between a well-kept and a poorly-cultivated coffee plantation by its trimmed or untrimmed appearance. The growth of weeds is sometimes allowed, especially on hillsides, as the roots of the weeds prevent the soil from washing during the tropical downpours. Otherwise the rich surface dirt will disappear down into the valleys below. A planter’s credit was at one time determined by the number of trees he owned, and that was the reason that some of the fields were planted so closely together. It has been proven, however, by experience, that close planting does not pay. One of the most successful planters told me that even the wagon roads, which are left at intervals of perhaps five hundred feet, were not a loss, for the trees on each side produced so much more abundantly that they made up for the row or two of trees left out for the road.
The coffee tree is an evergreen, and usually has a single trunk with many branches. The leaves are long, smooth and dark green in appearance. They are almost a shiny green like the holly, and look as though they had been varnished. The blossoms grow in great abundance in the axils of the branches, and a field in blossom is most entrancing. In the early morning, after a refreshing shower, or while the dew still lingers, the fields with their small, white blossoms are not only a beautiful sight to the eye, but an aroma arises from them that fills the air with a sweet perfume. The fruit usually grows in clusters of from a half dozen to a dozen berries, which surround the joints almost like a necklace just over the leaves. When ripe, the coffee berries resemble very much a cranberry of medium size. Then the coffee field is again a pretty picture, for the white flowers have turned into beautiful red berries, and the bushes resemble richly loaded cherry trees. The tree will produce abundant crops after the sixth year, and I saw fields that were at least thirty-five years old, and still bearing profitable crops. It is said that the coffee trees will produce as long as the life of man. There are two kinds of trees cultivated in Brazil: the common and the yellow-berried, or Botucatu, and generally called the Bourbon. The yellow-berried variety develops more rapidly, and gives more abundant crops, but its cultivation is more difficult. This latter is the one most generally cultivated at the present time, but it brings a lower price because it is said to be inferior to the other in aromatic qualities and the weight of the grain. Its introduction came about when the price was very high and every planter was anxious to obtain as great a production as possible.
The coffee trees begin to blossom in September and continue to bloom for several weeks. The maturing process is also irregular, and covers a period of a couple of months. It requires a number of months for the berries to mature, and in the state of São Paulo, for instance, the first picking does not take place until the last of May or first of June. From that time on the plantations are scenes of activity for five or six months, until the last of the crop is dispatched to the commission houses in Santos. The fields will then be filled with men, women and children with their baskets, gathering up the precious fruit, ready to be taken to the drying yards.
At harvesting time thousands of pickers flock to the coffee regions from other parts of Brazil, as they are able to earn good wages for a few weeks. Many whole families will travel for days on foot, when they have not enough money to pay their railroad fares. There is often considerable rivalry among the pickers to see who can pick the most; but there is also the further incentive to rapid work in the fact that all wages are paid at so much for a fixed quantity. Fifty pounds is considered a good day’s picking when it is done from the trees. The method in general operation on the large fazendas is to strip the branches of all their coffee berries, by pulling them between the fingers, and then others follow up and pick up the berries, leaves, etc., from the ground, or the sheets which have been spread out to catch them. In this way only one picking is made even though some of the berries have become overripe, and others are green owing to the uneven ripening. This causes a considerable unavoidable loss. In an extraordinary season a tree may produce as much as seven pounds of coffee, but a fair average is three pounds per tree.
DRYING COFFEE.
The gathering and preparation of the berries is a difficult and laborious operation involving a number of processes. The large plantations are equipped with all the necessary paved yards and machinery for this work, and the smaller planters send theirs to central factories, or beneficios, as they are called. The coffee must be washed, pulped, dried and submitted to several stages of preparation. The washing is a simple process, but the work of drying requires the greatest care, for it exercises a great influence on the value of the coffee. There are at least two distinct processes in the preparation of the coffee, but it is always first washed and then soaked in order to soften the pulp, so that it can be removed, for the coffee beans are in the centre. This “pulping” is done by a revolving cylinder set with teeth, after which the beans are run into tanks for a thorough washing to remove all traces of the pulp.
Some have a series of these tanks through which the coffee is passed, and the beans are then carried by means of running water out through the paving yards. On these great yards of beaten earth, paved with bricks or cemented, and sometimes tarred (for they dry quicker on a tarred floor), the berries are spread out in thin layers to dry. If you would take up a handful at this time you would find they were covered with a soft gummy substance. No artificial drying process equals that of the sun’s rays. Men with wooden rakes, and in their bare feet, are kept constantly busy turning over the berries to hasten this process, which oftentimes requires many days, and even weeks, for it is necessary that they be evenly dried.
You probably expect to see a green berry or bean at this time but they are still covered with a parchment-like skin. When they are finally dried this parchment skin is removed by passing the beans through heavy rollers, and the chaff is cleared away by machine work similar to that used for similar processes in wheat threshing and cleaning. By a continuous process the beans are passed through machines which husk, fan, polish and sort them according to sizes. The berries are now a light olive-green colour. The little round beans are classed as “Mocha” and another size as “Java,” etc. The various grades are then sacked in coarse sacks, labelled with the name of the fazenda and the grade, and shipped to Rio de Janeiro, or Santos, where the great commission houses are located.
The commission houses are important institutions and practically own many of the fazendas through advance loans, and the planter is helpless against charges that are oftentimes excessive. In the warehouses the coffee is all emptied out in great piles, and repacked in new sacks, often being regraded by the commissionaires. The planter is burdened with a great number of expenses. The net price to him the past year was only a little over four cents per pound. Among these expenses the following is a fair list as taken from an official publication, and verified to me by a leading planter: transportation to the railroad station, transportation to Santos, municipal export tax, resacking charges, shipping old sacks back, brokers’ commission (should be three per cent., but is in fact much higher), a special tax of $1.00 per sack and an ad valorem export tax of nine per cent., and a number of other minor charges. In the end it is the commission man who has the smallest amount of work and least risk, who makes the big money at the present price of coffee. It used to be when the planter received ten to twelve cents per pound for his coffee that the fazendero rolled in wealth, and no extravagance or luxury was beyond him. At the present time only those who have the latest improved machinery, so that the cost of preparation is reduced to a minimum, are making much money. A rise or fall of a cent per pound often means prosperity to the coffee producer or the reverse. The price to-day is not more than one-third of what it was a number of years ago. It is probably quite possible to simplify the cultivation of coffee trees so that there would be a considerable margin of profit at the present prices. One progressive planter looks after forty thousand trees with one man, four mules and two machines of a recent pattern, according to a report that I saw.
The steady decrease in the price of coffee during several years led to a new departure in economics, by the three great coffee producing states of Brazil. A sack of coffee (one hundred and thirty-two pounds), which in 1895 was worth almost $20.00 in Europe, had fallen to $8.00 in 1905. The coffee planters were almost in despair over this low price, which threatened to spell ruin for many of them within a short time. Among themselves they had attempted various measures, but all of them had failed. An attempt had been made as early as 1901, by the state of São Paulo, to remedy this situation, by a practically prohibitive tax upon new plantations, allowing each planter to set out each year only five per cent. of what he already possessed. This would not much more than replace the natural decay. This order was originally made for a period of five years, but has since been continued for another period of the same length.
This measure failed to bring about the desired result. Finally, when the crop of 1906-7 promised to be such an unusual crop, the planters appealed to the government for further relief. The state was equally interested, since by far the greatest part of the revenue of the state, and the various municipalities as well, is derived from its tax upon coffee, and they were afraid that the planters would become panicky and abandon coffee cultivation. Because of this alarm the governments of the three states of Rio de Janeiro, Minas Geraes and São Paulo entered into an agreement, known as the Taubaté Agreement, by which these states, acting through São Paulo, agreed to buy up on the market the surplus production and store it until such time as, in the judgment of the commissioners, conditions warranted its sale.
This judgment was based upon the observation that coffee trees exhaust themselves by such an extraordinary crop, and yield only average crops for the next two or three years. They figured that by that time the natural increase in the consumption would give a market for this coffee. Further, it was known that coffee improves, rather than deteriorates, with age. A special export tax of $0.60 to $1.00 per sack was established at the ports of Rio and Santos, and the government of São Paulo was authorized to borrow not to exceed $45,000,000 to raise a fund to purchase the coffee, each of the three states jointly binding themselves in the obligation. As a result of this agreement that state purchased eight million sacks of coffee in the market, and these were stored in a number of central points in Europe, as well as in New York. Money was borrowed at comparatively high rates. Both the state obligation was given and the stored coffee pledged as collateral security. At that time it was estimated that there would be, including the new crop, a surplus stock of fourteen million sacks of coffee, representing almost one year’s consumption.
The result of this action of the coffee producing states has not been what was expected. The price has not increased as was predicted, and the interest and other expenses have been a great drain upon revenues. Another part of the scheme was to limit the exportations from the country; nine million sacks being fixed for the year 1908, nine million five hundred thousand for the year 1909, and ten million for the following years. All coffee exported above that amount would be subject to an additional tax which made it prohibitive. Furthermore, the crops were rather larger than was expected, so that the surplus stock had not appreciatively decreased. In the winter of 1909-10, the time of my visit, there was a movement on foot, which gained a great many adherents, to arbitrarily destroy ten per cent. of the previous season’s crop, but this was not done. Within four months after the new crop came in, the limit allowed for export had been reached, and the export trade was at a standstill. It was a new attempt to get around the law of supply and demand. The final result of this attempt is as yet problematical, and remains to be seen. It was a bold and original effort that has many defenders, and many critics as well, right among the Brazilian people.
If not the best, the Brazilians make one of the best cups of coffee in the world. Never have I tasted such delicious coffee as I did almost all over that republic. The Brazilians understand fully the art of preparing this delicious beverage, and make it fit for kings and queens. They generally choose a coffee berry at least two years old, as they say that age improves the aroma. Some even say that five or six years’ storage in a dry place is still better. Another essential, they say, is to roast and grind the coffee fresh every day. The roasting process is very thorough, for it is roasted until the average American housewife would call it burned. The black roasted coffee is reduced to a fine powder, and then placed in a woollen bag through which hot water is poured. It is never allowed to boil, so that their coffee is rather a percolation than an extraction. I am not a cook, but I do know that the coffee as prepared by the Brazilians is delicious, and seems to be free from the harmful effects. In the morning it is served in about equal proportions with hot milk, but at all other times clear. Little dainty cups of black coffee with plenty of damp sugar are always served at social calls, at nearly all public offices and in many other places where one visits. In fact, if you called on a Brazilian family, and coffee or some other refreshment were not served, you would almost be justified in believing that your call was not especially welcome. I drank coffee many times, and at all hours, when offered, and often feared the consequences, but never felt the slightest ill effect.
CHAPTER XIV
THE LAND AND SEA FORCES
“You had better take off your hat,” said a friend to me, as some national troops were marching by on the Avenida Central, in Rio de Janeiro; “if you do not, some one may knock it off,” he continued. Then I noticed that every man and boy respectfully lifted his hat as the flag passed him; and I did the same. Three regiments of infantry passed along, each with its banner fluttering in the breeze, and as many times did we lift our hats in salute to the green and yellow starred emblem of Brazil; and I must confess that the sentiment involved in this tribute to the flag, for which we are supposed to be willing to bleed and die at all times, is commendable, and worthy of emulation.
Brazil is not a military nation in the sense that European nations are such. The proportion of soldiers to the population is greater than in the United States, but far less than in almost any European nation. The total number of men under arms, including the military police, does not exceed fifty thousand men. Of this number more than one-half are state troops. The soldiers are not much in evidence in any part of the republic, except those doing police duty. A compulsory military service does not exist, after the German or French model, although the right of conscription by either state or federal government is a part of the law, and can be resorted to whenever, in the judgment of either government, such a step becomes necessary. Retired or active officers are stationed at nearly all the colleges, by whom instruction in military tactics is given after established systems, much the same as in our own educational institutions. The term of enlistment in the federal army is for three years, with certain privileges in the event that the soldier re-enlists when a term has expired. One of these privileges is the choice of a free grant of land in one of the government colonies, and the gift of an outfit of agricultural implements with which to cultivate it.
Another inducement is in the way of additional remuneration. The entire republic is divided into seven districts, in each of which a barrack is maintained. The federal troops are divided into twenty different regiments, and a number of battalions are made up of the different branches of the service. The arms of all troops are of the latest improved Mauser type, and the artillery is exclusively of German manufacture.
The state troops number a considerable force. They are different in organization from the state militia of the United States, because they are regular troops under arms. The most of them serve in the various cities of the states as military police. They are a good and effective force in preserving order; and yet they have often been the source of serious trouble, for this system has enabled a state ring to defy national authority, because they had right at hand an armed force of their own, which primarily owned allegiance to the state government. The state of São Paulo alone has in its employ a force that exceeds five thousand well-armed and trained troops. Rio Grande do Sul, that turbulent and impetuous southern state, has an almost equal force, and the “Rio Grandenses” have been proven puissant and effective in more than one skirmish with federal troops. Bahia maintains about three thousand soldiers under arms in her barracks, and Minas Geraes comes next with twenty-five hundred. There is not a single state which does not have at least a few hundred men enrolled under its own banner. If all of these state troops would be loyal to the federal government, as they undoubtedly would be at this time, it would give a fairly good fighting force with which to meet any aggression from without.
The revolt of a national navy seems like a very unusual and almost ludicrous proceeding; yet Brazil had such an experience early in the history of the republic. For six months the Brazilian navy under Admirals Mello and Saldanha da Gama openly defied the authority of President Floriano, the second incumbent of that high office. Admiral Mello, who was in command of the navy, sent a short and curt message to the President ordering him to resign the presidency within six hours, or a bombardment of Rio de Janeiro would follow. President Floriano was made of stern stuff and flatly refused to resign. The Admiral then weakened in his threat and did not bombard the capital. Had he carried it out great destruction would undoubtedly have followed. The most of the navy remained in the bay, but a few of the boats escaped and joined the land insurgents in the southern part of the republic. The navy, cut off from supplies of food and fuel, was obliged to yield in the end, and the national government was victorious.
A quarter of a century ago the Brazilian navy was easily the most powerful in the southern hemisphere. At that time no other South American republic could boast of a navy of any considerable strength. Brazil then possessed a number of battleships, cruisers and other boats that were very creditable, and the cost of which had been very great. Since that time both Argentina and Chile have spent large sums of money building up their naval strength, and the discrepancy in sea forces is not so great as formerly. Both of these nations have made great financial sacrifices in order to dispute the supremacy of their bulky neighbour on the water. Ever since the establishment of an independent empire in Brazil more attention had been devoted to building up a formidable sea force than an army, and the same conditions exist to-day. It is perhaps not a bad thing for Brazil to have a strong navy because of its extensive coast line. Furthermore, because of the loose cohesion between the states, this arm of the national government adds greatly to its prestige. Nearly all the most powerful states have an extensive sea coast, and the navy would greatly assist the federal government in the event of any revolt against its authority. Although each state has its own military force, as heretofore described, none of them have any armed vessels to protect their ports. It is quite possible also, that a united interest in a powerful navy may aid in furthering a national and federal spirit which will aid in breaking down the idea of state loyalty as against federal unity, which has been hitherto predominant. If this should be the result, then the money invested in these seemingly useless monsters of the deep may be well spent.
The only instance when the navy has been in actual service was during the conflict with Argentina, and the Paraguayan war, when some engagements took place on the Paraná and Paraguay Rivers, between some of the smaller boats of Brazil and some armed vessels of Paraguay. In these encounters the former were victorious, and the Brazilians are proud of referring to the glorious traditions of the history of their navy.
The principal naval establishment is at Rio de Janeiro, near the landing dock. The naval yards here are quite extensive, and a couple of thousand men are usually employed. Several small cruisers and some river boats have been constructed there, but all the large boats have been built abroad, and the most of them in British yards. At the present time the boats listed in the Brazilian navy number about fifty. This includes every vessel, large and small, many of which are practically useless from the modern view point of practical war values. They could only be used in patrolling inland rivers, where neither armed vessels nor forts would be encountered. This list includes seven vessels that are classed as battleships, eight cruisers, nine torpedo boats, and then the auxiliary fleet, consisting of several small gun boats, dispatch boats, etc.
This list does not embody, however, the new vessels which are now being received from English builders. A couple of years ago contracts were let for three Dreadnaughts, two scout ships, two torpedo boats and ten torpedo boat destroyers. The addition of these boats will again place Brazil in the first rank of naval powers in the southern hemisphere. The three Dreadnaughts are claimed by the Brazilians to be the most powerful of their kind that have yet been constructed. They contain some new modifications in the placing of armour and the equipment of guns.
These monster warships will be named the Minas Geraes, São Paulo and the Rio de Janeiro, in honour of the three most powerful states. The first named has already been delivered, and is now in Brazilian waters. The other two will follow at intervals of a few months, and the smaller boats will all be added to the navy during the year 1910. One innovation is the placing of twelve-inch guns in the upper towers instead of the ten-inch guns which have been used heretofore. This feature, the British builders claim, gives these boats the most powerful armament of any ships afloat. Nine-inch armour has been used where seven and eight inch has generally been used. Then secondary batteries of great strength have been added in the centre line of the boats, which are also a novel feature. A speed of almost twenty-two knots an hour for these leviathans has been generated by the builders on the several trial runs. Each of the new battleships will be five hundred and forty-three feet in length with a displacement of nineteen thousand two hundred and eighty tons and a draught of twenty-five feet. The two scout ships will be named Bahia and Rio Grande do Sul after two more states. These vessels have been built for speed, and will be able to rush through the water at the rate of twenty-six and one-half knots per hour. They are now considering the advisability of adding submarine boats to the navy in order to complete the naval equipment.
“These new ships,” say the Brazilian authorities, “make it impossible for the great powers to start any so-called pacific demonstration against Brazil. To have any chance of success against the Brazilian Dreadnaughts, and other subsidiary ships, a power ought to have a number of ships at least double; but there is no country, England included, that can send so far from home such a considerable part of its navy without danger.” It has had one effect, and that has been to stir up its ambitious neighbour on the east coast, Argentina, and that country has recently let a contract with an American shipyard for two battleships which, according to Argentinian naval authorities, will be still more powerful Dreadnaughts than the new Brazilian ships.
For the education of young men for the army and navy the government maintains a number of schools. The Escola Militar, or military school of Rio Janeiro, is the West Point of Brazil. Here cadets are educated in military science and fitted for positions as commissioned officers. A military school is also maintained at Porto Alegre, where the children of military officers are educated at the government expense. There is also a Navy College in the same city for technical instruction in naval science. Schools for apprentices are also maintained in a number of the principal ports. The majority of those who enter these schools, both army and navy, are of mixed nationality, either negro or Indian. Instruction is given in all of the elementary studies in addition to army or naval science. The few years instruction received in those institutions by these men, who generally come from poor and ignorant homes, makes them not only better educated men but better fitted to assume the duties of citizens of a great republic.