As a rule, adverbs present more difficulty than do adjectives. Careless pupils frequently use an adjective when an adverb is necessary; as,
| Wrong: | He solved the problem very quick. |
| Right: | He solved the problem very quickly. |
| Wrong: | This is real good candy. |
| Right: | This is really (or very) good candy. |
Until the habit of correct usage is formed, every sentence must be watched. When a word modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, another adverb must be used, and an adjective may not correctly be substituted. As a rule, adverbs express the following ideas:
| Time: | We arrived early. | |
| Place: | We have been here since January. | |
| Manner: | He walked steadily onward. | |
| Cause: | Why did you refuse the offer? | |
| Degree: | I am very much surprised. | |
| Number: | I did it once not twice. | |
| Assertion: | I do not agree. | |
| Denial: | ||
Adverb modifying a verb: See how slowly the man walks!
Adverb modifying an adjective: The weather has been extremely warm.
Adverb modifying an adverb: He dictates very rapidly.
It must be remembered, however, that verbs of the senses—taste, feel, look, smell, sound, and the like—are sometimes almost equal in meaning to the verb be. In that case, they are followed by adjectives and not by adverbs; as,
| Adjective: | He looked angry. |
| Adverb: | He looked angrily at us. |
Exercise 90
Name the adjectives in the following selection, explaining with what noun each belongs.
Name the adverbs, explaining what part of speech each modifies.
Since 1904 the number of live cattle exported from this country has been steadily growing smaller. Exports of dressed beef have also shrunk to such insignificant proportions that the United States is no longer an important factor in the foreign markets for beef. Often has it been said that the competition of cheap Argentine beef has deprived us of foreign markets. It would be more nearly true to say that foreigners buy the inferior article only because we cannot supply them with all they want of the best grade. Take, for instance, the Englishman's willingness to pay considerably more for American corn-fed beef than for Argentine.
The raising of cattle is important, also, from the standpoint of the leather business. Obviously, with a 21 per cent increase in population in each decade, many more shoes are necessary. Automobile and other industries are making constantly increasing demands for leather. Shoes cannot become cheaper in the face of increased demand and diminished supply. Too much depends upon the cattle industry for us to allow it to wane.
Exercise 91
Which of the italicized words should you use in the following, and why?
1. Why do you walk so slow—slowly?
2. Speak louder—more loudly.
3. I cannot explain why he spoke so gentle—gently.
4. The automobile was going very swift—swiftly.
5. The well has been dug very deep—deeply.
6. He is not near—nearly so tall as you are.
7. Are you cutting that even—evenly?
8. She does pen and ink sketches beautiful—beautifully.
9. Why can't I grow quicker—more quickly?
10. I feel bad—badly this morning.
11. Can you do all I have asked? Easy—easily.
12. She does her work good—well.
13. She does her work fine—finely.
14. I am real—very much surprised to see you.
15. He became real—very angry.
16. I'm afraid it's not near—nearly big enough.
17. She works twice as quick—quickly as you do.
18. He sure—surely is a good speaker. He seems sure—surely of himself.
19. Are you going? Sure—surely?
20. He says he is near—nearly starved.
21. He worked steady—steadily all morning. The others did not work near—nearly so hard.
22. I am speaking as serious—seriously as I can.
23. The orange tastes bitter—bitterly.
24. Don't you think he has been acting queer—queerly?
25. The coat is finished nice—nicely.
Explain the proper position of the italicized adverbs in the following sentences. Remember that an adverb must stand as closely as possible to the word that it modifies, but remember also that an infinitive, although made up of two parts, is one word and should not be split by an adverb.
1. I merely want the Milwaukee list of customers.
2. You almost write like her.
3. Your writing is like hers almost.
4. I can not find one of the papers I had on the desk.
5. He told me to carefully add the figures in the column.
6. I expect to quickly finish my dictation.
7. I don't even understand the first problem in the lesson.
8. Don't say you don't ever expect to go to school again.
9. All the statements are not on my desk.
10. He promised to quickly settle the matter.
11. I wish you to clearly understand the situation.
12. I only have two more items to enter.
13. I only expect to take a short vacation this year.
14. He only spoke of two causes of the loss in trade.
15. I only decided to take the Western instead of the Eastern trip at the last moment.
Exercise 93—Comparison
Adjectives are compared so as to express different degrees of quality. There are three degrees of comparison, the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. When the object modified or described by the adjective is not compared with another, the first or positive degree is used. When two objects are compared, the second or comparative degree is used to denote more or less of the quality expressed by the adjective. When several objects are compared, the superlative degree of the adjective is used to express the highest or the lowest possible degree of the adjective.
The usual method of comparing an adjective is to add er to the positive to form the comparative, and est to form the superlative. Frequently, however, especially for an adjective of two or more syllables, the comparative is formed by prefixing more or less to the positive, and the superlative by prefixing most or least. Besides the adjectives in these two classes there are some which do not follow any regular method and must, therefore, be watched a little more closely.
The following table illustrates the different methods of comparison:
| Positive | Comparative | Superlative |
| bright | brighter | brightest |
| dangerous | more dangerous | most dangerous |
| beautiful | more beautiful | most beautiful |
| good | better | best |
| bad | worse | worst |
| ill | worse | worst |
Be careful to avoid using a double sign for the comparative degree; as,
Some adverbs are also compared; as,
| Positive | Comparative | Superlative |
| well | better | best |
| quickly | more quickly | most quickly |
Some adjectives and adverbs cannot be compared because the positive degree in itself expresses a complete or absolute meaning; as,
| absolute,-ly | eternal | perfect | sufficient |
| circular | extreme | perpendicular | supreme |
| continual | faultless | perpetual | unanimous |
| dead | full | right | unique |
| decisive | impossible | round | universal |
| empty | incurable | square | white |
Compare those of the following adjectives that may be compared. Explain why some do not admit of comparison.
| great | spotless | expensive | wise |
| tall | dear | parallel | high |
| desirable | east | old | new |
| honorable | early | exclusive | blank |
Exercise 94
In the following exercise, select the correct one of the two italicized forms. Remember that the comparative degree is used in comparing two objects, the superlative in comparing three or more.
1. I had three pens. I have lost the better—best one.
2. I have two clerks. John is the older—oldest.
3. Of the two colors, I think the tan is the more—most becoming to you.
4. You are the taller—tallest of all the boys.
5. Of two professions, choose the more—most honorable.
6. He is the faster—fastest workman in the shop.
7. Which of your hands is the cleaner—cleanest?
8. Which do you like better—best, skating or sleighing?
9. Which of your eyes has the better—best vision?
10. Of all the shops, she likes Leslie's better—best.
11. Which is more—most durable, serge or broadcloth?
12. Which tree lives longer—longest, the poplar or the elm?
13. Which is the best—better policy, honesty or dishonesty?
14. He is the wittier—wittiest one in the class.
15. He is the wittier—wittiest boy in the class. There is only one boy in the class besides him.
16. Of our twenty salesmen, he is considered better—best because he is quicker—quickest witted than any other.
17. You should not mention the two men in one breath. The former—first is famous and the latter—last infamous.
18. Which of you two do you think deserves more—most praise?
19. Which of you two deserves less—least praise?
20. Which of you two can run the faster—fastest?
Exercise 95
Remember that the double negative is wrong; as,
Right: I have no paper.
Correct any of the following sentences that contain this mistake:
1. None of them didn't come.
2. I couldn't do the problem neither.
3. This paper isn't very good, I don't think.
4. Couldn't you find no better pen?
5. I didn't choose none of them.
6. I don't see nothing to complain of.
7. He couldn't hardly see across the street.
8. We didn't find the paper nowhere.
9. They can't scarcely believe the report.
10. She couldn't stay with us only a few minutes.
Exercise 96—Fewer, Less
Fewer refers to a smaller number by counting, less refers to a smaller quantity by measuring. Insert the correct word:
1. You are making —— mistakes each day.
2. I am having —— difficulty in writing shorthand.
3. There are —— houses on this street than I had thought.
4. The farther inland we went the —— signs of habitation we saw.
5. Each year there is —— opportunity for an uneducated man to rise.
6. Each year there are —— opportunities for the uneducated man to rise.
Most, Almost
Most refers to quantity or number; almost means not quite. Insert the correct word:
7. —— people enjoy their work.
8. I have —— finished the course in stenography.
9. —— European cities are beautiful.
10. —— all European cities are beautiful.
Real, Very
Real is an adjective meaning actual; very is an adverb of degree. Insert the correct word:
11. I'm —— glad to see you.
12. Is your comb —— amber?
13. The men of the Titanic were —— heroes.
14. He is a —— good soloist.
15. She is —— entertaining in conversation; it was a —— pleasure to meet her.
Exercise 97—Adjectives and Adverbs Incorrectly Used
CHAPTER VIII
Verbs may be transitive or intransitive.
A verb is transitive when it needs an object to complete its meaning; that is, when the action passes over (Latin, transire, to pass over) from the subject or doer to the object or receiver; as,
A verb is intransitive when it needs no object to complete its meaning; as,
Some intransitive verbs require a predicate noun or pronoun in the nominative case, or an adjective, to complete their meaning. They are the verbs be, become, appear, seem, feel, taste, look, smell; as,
| Adjective: The berries taste sour. |
| Noun: John is my brother. |
| Pronoun: It is I. |
Such verbs are sometimes called copulatives.
Exercise 98
Tell whether each verb in the following sentences is transitive or intransitive and whether it is followed by a noun or a pronoun in the nominative or the objective case or by a complementary adjective.
1. Primitive people have left traces of very early commercial relations.
2. Explorers visited the Ohio valley and found articles of remote manufacture.
3. Checks and drafts are great conveniences to the business man.
4. The United States Supreme Court made a decision that labor unions are punishable under trust penalties.
5. A labor union is different from a trust.
6. This is the opinion of the labor leader.
7. What is your opinion?
8. The total value of merchandise sent to Latin-America from the United States exceeds that supplied by any other single country.
Write three sentences illustrating transitive verbs.
Write three sentences illustrating intransitive verbs.
Write three sentences illustrating copulative verbs.
Exercise 99—Voice
Voice is that property of the verb that shows whether the subject acts or is acted upon. If the subject acts, the verb is in the active voice. If the subject is acted upon, the verb is in the passive voice. Every sentence containing a transitive verb must have the following parts:
| Agent(doer) | Action | Receiver |
| The runaway horse | injured | John. |
When the sentence is in the order shown above, the subject is the agent, and the verb expresses the action of the agent. When the sentence is written in this order, the verb is said to be in the active voice.
However, without changing the meaning of the sentence, we may change the order of the ideas; thus,
| Receiver | Action | Agent |
| John | was injured | by the runaway horse. |
The receiver of the action has become the subject, and the agent has become part of the predicate, being expressed in the phrase by the runaway horse. When the sentence is expressed in this order, the subject receiving or "suffering" the action, the verb is said to be in the passive voice. Only transitive verbs, therefore, may be changed to the passive voice.
Note.—There are certain intransitive verbs that sometimes have a preposition so closely connected with them that the two are treated almost like a transitive verb, and may be made passive; as,
Passive: The speaker was laughed at by the audience.
Write five sentences in the active voice.
Change them to the passive voice.
In the sentences that you have written, is the active form of the verb or the passive form better? Which is more direct in its wording? Which, then, is the better form to use regularly?
Exercise 100—Number and Person
The number of the verb is decided by the number of the subject. If the subject is a singular noun, or a pronoun that stands for a singular noun, it requires a singular verb; if the subject is plural, it requires a plural verb. As a rule, there is no difference between the singular and the plural forms of the verb except in the form for the third person singular; as,
| I say | We say |
| You say | You say |
| He says | They say |
But as the third person of the verb is the one most often used, it must be carefully noted.
The following subjects of verbs are singular and require a singular verb to accompany them:
1. A collective noun that denotes a group of objects acting as one thing; as,
2. A group of words which, like a collective noun, is plural in form but singular in meaning; as,
3. A singular noun modified by every, each, one, no, many a; or the pronouns each, everybody, either, neither, and none when it means not one; as,
Many an opportunity has been wasted.
Everybody is here now.
4. Singular[1] nouns or pronouns joined by or, either—or, neither—nor; as,
5. Two nouns joined by and, denoting one person or thing; as,
Note.—If two persons are meant, the article should be repeated before the second noun.
The following subjects of verbs are plural and require plural verbs:
1. A collective noun denoting plurality; that is, referring to the individuals that compose the group; as,
2. A compound subject joined by and, when the objects joined are different; as,
3. The pronoun you, though it may denote only one person; as,
Wrong: You was right.
Exercise 101
In the following sentences, decide which of the italicized forms is correct. Give the reason for your choice.
1. Two dollars is—are too much for you to pay.
2. Bread and butter is—are what I prefer to eat.
3. Bread and butter is—are both sold here.
4. His opinion and mine is—are different.
5. The majority of the class is—are present.
6. The class is—are dismissed.
7. The congregation is—are asked to remain a few minutes after the close of the service.
8. The community is—are rapidly changing.
9. A few of the books was—were given to me.
10. There was—were forty people present.
11. The secretary and treasurer was—were asked to read his—their report.
12. One-third of the office was—were late this morning because the cars were not running.
13. He don't—doesn't understand what I mean.
14. If the quality and the price is—are right, buy.
15. There come—comes a crowd of people.
16. The library with its thousands of books was—were destroyed by fire.
17. There don't—doesn't seem to be much difference between the two.
18. The whole system of filing and indexing is—are wrong.
19. Safety as well as success is—are at stake.
20. The state of public affairs calls—call for quick action.
21. Many a man has—have neglected golden opportunities.
22. Many men has—have neglected golden opportunities.
23. The committee has—have given its—their report.
24. Our team was—were beaten.
25. One of us surely is—are mistaken.
26. Every one was—were happy when Tom was elected president.
27. Tom and James is—are going skating.
28. Tom with his brother James is—are going skating.
29. The only thing I have not prepared for dinner is—are the potatoes.
30. Fifty feet of sidewalk was—were laid to-day.
31. None of the boys is—are studying stenography.
32. Neither Tom nor his brother is—are studying stenography.
33. Both Tom and his brother is—are stenographers.
34. Every one is—are interested in the cost of living.
In the last sentence above substitute one of the following for every one, using the correct form of the verb with each:
The tense of the verb indicates the time of the action. There are three primary tenses, indicating action in the present, the past, and the future. Each of these tenses has also a perfect tense, which, represents the action as being perfect or complete in the present, the past, and the future.
The present tense is the simplest form. It denotes that the action takes place now; as,
| I write | We write |
| You write | You write |
| He writes | They write |
To be more exact, we may indicate that the action is continuing in the present time, and then we say,
| I am writing | We are writing |
| You are writing | You are writing |
| He is writing | They are writing |
This is called the present progressive tense.
It may be that you wish to be emphatic, and you say,
| I do write | We do write |
| You do write | You do write |
| He does write | They do write |
This is called the emphatic present tense.
The past tense indicates that the action took place in past time; as,
| I wrote | We wrote |
| You wrote | You wrote |
| He wrote | They wrote |
or, the past progressive; as,
| I was writing | We were writing |
| You were writing | You were writing |
| He was writing | They were writing |
or, the past emphatic; as,
| I did write | We did write |
| You did write | You did write |
| He did write | They did write |
The emphatic form is used only in the present and the past tenses.
The future tense denotes that the action will take place at some future time. It is formed by using shall or will with the simplest form of the verb; as,
| I shall write | We shall write |
| You will write | You will write |
| He will write | They will write |
The progressive form is not common. It is
| I shall be writing | We shall be writing |
| You will be writing | You will be writing |
| He will be writing | They will be writing |
The three perfect tenses are formed by using the verb have with the perfect participle of the verb.
The present perfect tense denotes that the action is complete at the present time. It is formed by the present tense of have and the perfect participle of the verb; as,
| I have written | We have written |
| You have written | You have written |
| He has written | They have written |
The progressive form is,
| I have been writing | We have been writing |
| You have been writing | You have been writing |
| He has been writing | They have been writing |
The past perfect denotes that the action was completed in past time. It is formed by using the past tense of have and the perfect participle of the verb; as,
| I had written | We had written |
| You had written | You had written |
| He had written | They had written |
The progressive form is,
| I had been writing | We had been writing |
| You had been writing | You had been writing |
| He had been writing | They had been writing |
The future perfect tense denotes that the action will be completed at some future time. It is formed by the future of have and the perfect participle of the verb; as,
| I shall have written | We shall have written |
| You will have written | You will have written |
| He will have written | They will have written |
The progressive form is rarely used. It is
| I shall have been writing | We shall have been writing |
| You will have been writing | You will have been writing |
| He will have been writing | They will have been writing |
Giving all forms singular and plural, first, second, and third persons of each tense constitutes the conjugation of a verb. Giving one person in each tense constitutes the synopsis of the conjugation.
The following is a synopsis of all the tenses of the active voice in the first person singular number of the verb write:
| Tense | Primary | Present | I write (simple form) | |||
| I am writing (progressive form) | ||||||
| I do write (emphatic form) | ||||||
| Past | I wrote (simple) | |||||
| I was writing (progressive) | ||||||
| I did write (emphatic) | ||||||
| Future | I shall write (simple) | |||||
| I shall be writing (progressive) | ||||||
| Perfect or Secondary | Present Perfect | I have written (simple) | ||||
| I have been writing (progressive) | ||||||
| Past Perfect | I had written (simple) | |||||
| I had been writing (progressive) | ||||||
| Future Perfect | I shall have written (simple) | |||||
| I shall have been writing (progressive) |
Exercise 103
Conjugate the following in the active voice:
1. Simple past tense of walk.
2. Present progressive tense of walk.
3. Present perfect of drive. (See Exercise 108 for the principal parts.)
4. Present perfect progressive of drive.
5. Future progressive of ride.
6. Past of ride.
7. Present progressive of ride.
8. Past emphatic of ride.
9. Past perfect of ride.
10. Present perfect progressive of ride.
Give a synopsis of the progressive tenses of begin, using he as the subject.