The Project Gutenberg eBook, Ceylon; an Account of the Island Physical, Historical, and Topographical with Notices of Its Natural History, Antiquities and Productions, Volume 1 (of 2), by James Emerson Tennent

CEYLON

AN ACCOUNT OF THE ISLAND

PHYSICAL, HISTORICAL, AND TOPOGRAPHICAL

WITH

NOTICES OF ITS NATURAL HISTORY, ANTIQUITIES AND PRODUCTIONS

BY

SIR JAMES EMERSON TENNENT, K.C.S. LL.D. &c.

ILLUSTRATED BY MAPS, PLANS AND DRAWINGS

FOURTH EDITION, THOROUGHLY REVISED

VOLUME I.

LONDON

1860

CONTENTS

OF

THE FIRST VOLUME.

PART I.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

CHAPTER I.

GEOLOGY.—MINERALOGY.—GEMS.

• I. General Aspect.
• • Singular beauty of the island 3
  • Its ancient renown in consequence 4
  • Fable of its "perfumed winds" (note) 4
  • Character of the scenery 5
• II. Geographical Position 6
• • Ancient views regarding it amongst the Hindus,—"the Meridian of Lanka" 6
  • Buddhist traditions of former submersions (note) 7
  • Errors as to the dimensions of Ceylon 8
  • Opinions of Onesicritus, Eratosthenes, Strabo, Pliny, Ptolemy, Agathemerus 8, 9
  • The Arabian geographers 9
  • Sumatra supposed to be Ceylon (note) 10
  • True latitude and longitude 11
  • General Eraser's map of Ceylon (note) 11
  • Geological formation 12
  • Adam's Bridge 13
  • Error of supposing Ceylon to be a detached fragment of India 14
• III. The Mountain System 14
• • Remarkable hills, Mihintala and Sigiri 15
  • Little evidence of volcanic action 16
  • Rocks, gneiss 16
  • Rock temples 17
  • Laterite or "Cabook" 17
  • Ancient name Tamba-panni (note) 17
  • Coral formation 19
  • Extraordinary wells 21
  • Darwin's theory of coral wells examined (note) 22
  • The soil of Ceylon generally poor 24
  • "Patenas," their phenomena obscure 24
  • Rice lands between the hills 26
  • Soil of the plains, "Talawas" 27
• IV. Metals.—Tin 29
• • Gold, nickel, cobalt 29
  • Quicksilver (note) 29
  • Iron 30
• V. Minerals.—Anthracite, plumbago, kaolin, nitre caves 31
• • List of Ceylon minerals (note) 32
• VI. Gems, ancient fame of 32
• • Rose-coloured quartz (note) 33
  • Mode of searching for gems 34
  • Rubies 34
  • Sapphire, topaz, garnet, and cinnamon stone, cat's-eye, amethyst, moonstone 37, 38
  • Diamond not found in Ceylon (note) 38
  • Gem-finders and lapidaries 39
• VII. Rivers.—Their character 40
• • The Mahawelli-ganga 41
  • Table of the rivers 41
• VIII. Singular coast formation, and its causes 43
• • The currents and their influence 44
  • Word "Gobb" explained (note) 46
  • Vegetation of the sand formations 48
  • Their suitability for the coconut 51
• IX. Harbours.—Galle and Trincomalie 52
• • Tides 52
  • Red infusoria 53
  • Population of Ceylon 53

CHAP. II.

CLIMATE.—HEALTH AND DISEASE.

• Uniformity of temperature 54
• Brilliancy of foliage 56
• Colombo.—January—long shore wind 56
• February—cold nights (note) 57
• March, April 58
• May—S.W. monsoon 58
• • Aspect of the country before it 59
  • Lightning 60
  • Rain, its violence 61
• June 62
• July and August, September, October, November. N.E. monsoon 63
• December 64
• Annual quantity of rain in Ceylon and Hindustan (note) 65
• Opposite climates of the same mountain 66
• Climate of Galle 67
• Kandy and its climate 67
• • Mists and hail 69
• Climate of Trincomalie (text and note) 70
• Jaffna and its climate 71
• Waterspouts 72
• Anthelia 73
• Buddha rays 73
• Ceylon as a sanatarium.—Neuera-ellia 74
• • Health 75
  • Malaria 75
  • Food and wine 76, 77
  • Effects of the climate of Ceylon on disease 79
  • Precautions for health 80

CHAP. III

VEGETATION.—TREES AND PLANTS.

• The Flora of Ceylon imperfectly known 83
• Vegetation similar to that of India and the Eastern Archipelago 84
• Trees of the sea-borde.—Mangroves—Screw-pines, Sonneratia 85
• The Northern Plains.—Euphorbiæ Cassia.—Mustard-tree of Scripture 87
• Western coast.—Luxurious vegetation 87
• Eastern coast 88
• Pitcher plant.—Orchids 88
• Vines 89
• Botany of the Mountains.—Iron-wood, Bamboo, European fruit-trees 90
• • Tea-plant—Rhododendron—Mickelia 90
  • Rapid disappearance of dead trees in the forests 91
  • Trees with natural buttresses 91
• Flowering Trees.—Coral tree 92
• • The Murutu—Imbul—Cotton tree—Champac 93
  • The Upas Tree—Poisons of Ceylon 95
  • The Banyan 95
  • The Sacred Bo-tree 97
  • The India Rubber-tree—The Snake-tree 98
  • Kumbuk-tree: lime in its bark 99
• Curious Seeds.—The Dorian, Sterculia foetida 100
  • The Sea Pomegranate 100
  • Strychnos, curious belief as to its poison 101
• Euphorbia—The Cow-tree, error regarding (note) 101
• Climbing plants, Epiphytes, and flowering creepers 102
• Orchids—Brilliant terrestrial orchid, the Wanna-raja.—Square-stemmed Vine 103
• Gigantic climbing Plants 104
  • Enormous bean 105
  • Bonduc seeds.—Ratans—Ratan bridges 106
• Thorny Trees.—Raised as a natural fortification by the Kandyans 107
  • The buffalo thorn, Acacia tomentosa 108
• Palms 109
  • Coco-nut—Talipat 110
  • Palmyra 111
  • Jaggery Palm—Arcea Palm 112
• Betel-chewing, its theory and uses 112
  • Pingos 114
• Timber Trees 115
  • Jakwood—Del—Teak 116
  • Suria 117
• Cabinet Woods.—Satin-wood—Ebony—Cadooberia 117
• • Calamander, its rarity and beauty 118
  • Tamarind 119
• Fruit-trees 119
• • Remarkable power of trees to generate cold and keep their fruit chill 121
• Aquatic Plants—Lotus, red and blue 123
• • Desmanthus natans, an aquatic sensitive plant 123

PART II.

ZOOLOGY.

CHAPTER I.

MAMMALIA.

• Neglect of Zoology in Ceylon 127
• Monkeys 128
• • Wanderoo 129
  • Error regarding the Silenus Veter (note) 129
  • Presbytes Cephalopterus 130
  • P. Ursinus in the Hills 131
  • P. Thersites in the Wanny 132
  • P. Priamus, Jaffna and Trincomalie 132
  • No dead monkey ever found 133
• Loris 133
• Bats 135
• • Flying fox 135
  • Horse-shoe bat 136
• Carnivora.—Bears 137
• Their ferocity 138
• Singhalese belief in the efficacy of charms (note) 139
• Leopards 139
• • Curious belief 140
  • Anecdotes of leopards 142
• Palm-cat 144
• Civet 144
• Dogs 144
• Jackal 145
• • The horn of the jackal 145
• Mungoos 145
• • Its fights with serpents 146
  • Theory of its antidote 147
• Squirrels 148
• • Flying squirrel 148
• Tree rat 149
• • Story of a rat and a snake 149
• Coffee rat 149
• Bandicoot 150
• Porcupine 150
• Pengolin 151
• Ruminantia.—The Gaur 151
• • Oxen 152
  • Humped cattle 152
  • Encounter of a cow and a leopard 153
  • Buffaloes 154
  • Sporting buffaloes 155
  • Peculiar structure of the hoof 155
• Deer 156
• Meminna 157
• Elephants 158
• Whales 158
• General view of the mammalia of Ceylon 159
• List of Ceylon mammalia 159
• Curious parasite of the bat (note) 161

CHAP. II.

BIRDS.

• Their numbers 163
• Songsters 163
• Hornbills, the "bird with two heads" 164
• Pea fowl 165
• Sea birds, their number 165
• I. Accipitres.—Eagles 166
• • Falcons and hawks 166
  • Owls—the devil bird 167
• II. Passeres.—Swallows 167
• • Kingfishers—sunbirds 168
  • Bul-bul—tailor bird—and weaver 169
  • Crows, anecdotes of 170
• III. Scansores.—Parroquets 172
• IV. Columbiæ.—Pigeons 173
• V. Gallinæ.—Jungle-fowl 174
• VI. Grallæ.—Ibis, stork, &c. 175
• VII. Anseres.—Flamingoes 175
• • Pelicans 176
  • Game.—Partridges, &c.176
• List of Ceylon birds 177
• List of birds peculiar to Ceylon 180

CHAP. III.

REPTILES.

• Lizards.—Iguana 182
• • Kabragoya, barbarous custom in preparing the cobra-tel poison (note) 183
  • The green calotes 184
  • Chameleon 184
  • Ceratophora 185
  • Geckoes,—their power of reproducing limbs 185, 186
• Crocodiles 186
• • Their power of burying themselves in the mud 187
• Tortoises—Curious parasite 188
• • Land tortoises 189
  • Edible turtle 190
  • Huge Indian tortoises (note) 190
  • Hawk's-bill turtle, barbarous mode of stripping it of the tortoise-shell 190
• Serpents.—Venomous species rare 191
• • Cobra de capello 192
  • Instance of land snakes found at sea 193
  • Tame snakes (note) 193
  • Singular tradition regarding the cobra de capello 194
  • Uropeltidæ.—New species discovered in Ceylon 195
  • Buddhist veneration for the cobra de capello 195
  • Anecdotes of snakes 196
  • The Python 196
  • Water snakes 197
  • Snake stones 197
  • Analysis of one 199
  • Cæcilia 201
  • Large frogs 202
  • Tree frogs 202
• List of Ceylon reptiles 203

CHAP. IV.

FISHES.

• Ichthyology of Ceylon, little known 205
• Fish for table, seir fish 205
• Sardines, poisonous? 206
• Sharks 207
• Saw-fish 207
• Fish of brilliant colours 207
• Curious fish described by Ælian (note) 207
• Fresh-water fish, little known,—not much eaten 208
• Fresh-water fish in Colombo Lake 209
• Immense profusion of fish in the rivers and lakes 209
• Their re-appearance after rain 209
• Mode of fishing in the ponds 210
• Showers of fish 210
• Conjecture that the ova are preserved, not tenable 212
• Fish moving on dry land 213
• • Instances in Guiana (note) 214
  • Perca Scandens, ascends trees 215
  • Doubts as to the story of Daldorf 217
• Fishes burying themselves during the dry season 218
• • The protopterus of the Gambia 218
  • Instances in the fish of the Nile 218
  • Instances in the fish of South America 219
  • Living fish dug out of the ground in the dry tanks in Ceylon 220
  • Other animals that so bury themselves, Melaniæ, Ampullariæ, &c. 220
  • The animals that so bury themselves in India (note) 220
  • Analogous case of (note) 221
  • Theory of æstivation and hybernation 221
• Fish in hot-water in Ceylon 224
• List of Ceylon fishes 224
• Instances of fishes failing from the clouds 226
• Overland migration of fishes known to the Greeks and Romans 227
• Note on Ceylon fishes by Professor Huxley 229
• Comparative note by Dr. Gray, Brit. Mus.231

CHAP. V.

MOLLUSCA, RADIATA, AND ACALEPHÆ.

• I. Conchology—General character of Ceylon shells 233
• • Confusion regarding them in scientific works and collections 234
  • List of Ceylon shells 235
• II. Radiata.—Star fish 244
• • Sea slugs 245
  • Parasitic worms 245
  • Planaria 235
• III. Acalephæ, abundant 246
• • Corals little known 246

CHAP. VI.

INSECTS.

• Profusion of insects in Ceylon 247
• • Imperfect knowledge of 247
• I. Coleoptera.—Beetles 248
• • Scavenger beetles 249
  • Coco-nut beetles 249
  • Tortoise beetles 250
• II. Orthoptera.—Mantis and leaf-insects 250
• • Stick-insects 252
• III. Neuroptera—Dragon flies 252
• • Ant-lion 252
  • White ants 253
  • Anecdotes of their instinct and ravages (text and note) 254
• V. Hymenoptera.—Mason Wasps 256
• • Wasps 257
  • Bees 257
  • Carpenter Bee 258
  • Ants 258
  • Burrowing ants 262
• VI. Lepidoptera.—Butterflies 262
• • Sylph 263
  • Lycænidæ 264
  • Moths 265
  • Silk worms (text and note) 265
  • Wood-carrying Moths 266
  • Pterophorus 267
• VII. Homoptera 267
• • Cicada 267
• VIII. Hemiptera 267
• • Bugs 267
• IX. Aphaniptera 268
• X. Diptera.—Mosquitoes 268
• General character of Ceylon insects 269
• List of insects in Ceylon 274

CHAP. VII.

ARACHNIDE, MYRIOPODA, CRUSTACEA, ETC.

• Spiders 294
• • Strange nests of the wood spiders 295
  • Olios Taprobanius 295
  • Mygale fasciata 295
  • Ticks 296
  • Mites.—Trombidium tinctorum 297
• Myriapods.—Centipedes 297
• • Cermatia 298
  • Scolopendra crassa 298
  • S. pollipes 299
• Millipeds—Iulus 299
• Crustacea 300
• • Calling crabs 300
  • Land crabs 301
  • Painted crabs 301
  • Paddling crabs 301
• Annelidæ, Leeches.—The land leech 302
• • Medical leech 305
  • Cattle leech 306
• List of Articulata, &c.307

PART III.

THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES.

CHAPTER I.

SOURCES OF SINGHALESE HISTORY—THE MAHAWANSO.

• Ceylon formerly thought to have no authentic history 311
• Researches of Turnour 312
• Biographical sketch of Turnour (note) 312
• The Mahawanso 314
• Recovery of the "tika" on the Mahawanso 315
• Outline of the Mahawanso 315
• Turnour's epitome of Singhalese history 316
• Historical proofs of the Mahawanso 317
• Identity of Sandracottus and Chandragupta 318
• Ancient map of Ceylon (note) 318
• List of Ceylon sovereigns 320

CHAP. II.

THE ABORIGINES.

• Singhalese histories all illustrative of Buddhism 325
• A Buddha 325
• Gotama Buddha, his history 326
• Amazing prevalence of his religion (note) 326
• His three visits to Ceylon 327
• Inhabitants of the island at that time supposed to be of Malayan type 327
• Legend of their Chinese origin 328
• Probably identical with the aborigines of the Dekkan 328
• Common basis of their language 328
• Characteristics of vernacular Singhalese 329
• State of the aborigines before Wijayo's invasion 330
• Story of Wijayo 330
• The natives of Ceylon described as Yakkos and Nagas 331
• Traces of serpent-worship in Ceylon 331
• Coincidence of the Mahawanso with the Odyssey (note) 332

CHAP. III.

CONQUEST OF WIJAYO, B.C. 543.—ESTABLISHMENT OF BUDDHISM, B.C. 307.

• Early commerce of Ceylon described by the Chinese 335
• Wijayo as a colonizer 336
• His treatment of the native population 336
• B.C. 505. His death and successors 336
• A number of petty kingdoms formed 337
• Ceylon divided into three districts: Pihiti, Rohuna, and Maya 337
• The village system established 337
• Agriculture introduced 338
• Irrigation imported from India 338
• The first tank constructed, B.C. 504 (note) 338
• Rapid progress of the island 339
• Toleration of Wijayo and his followers 339
• Establishment of Buddhism, 307 B.C. 340
• Preaching of Mahindo 340
• Planting of the sacred Bo-tree 341

CHAP. IV.

THE BUDDHIST MONUMENTS.

• Buddhist architecture introduced in Ceylon 344
• The first dagobas built 345
• Their mode of construction and vast dimensions 346
• The earliest Buddhist temples 346
• Images and statues a later innovation 347
• First residences of the priesthood 347
• The formation of monasteries and wiharas 348
• The first wihara built 349
• Form of the modern wiharas 349
• Inconvenient numbers of the Buddhist priesthood 350
• Originally fed by the kings and the people 350
• Caste annulled in the case of priests 351
• The priestly robe and its peculiarities 351

CHAP. V.

SINGHALESE CHIVALRY.—ELALA AND DUTUGAIMUNU.

• Progress of civilisation 352
• The new settlers agriculturists 352
• Malabars enlisted as soldiers and seamen 353
• B.C. 237. The revolt of Sena and Gutika 353
• B.C. 205. Usurpation of Elala 353
• His character and renown 353
• The victory of Dutugaimunu 354
• Progress of the south of the island 355
• Building of the great Ruanwellé Dagoba 355
• Building of the Brazen Palace 356
• Its vicissitudes and ruins 357
• Death and character of Dutugaimunu 358

CHAP. VI.

THE INFLUENCES OP BUDDHISM ON CIVILISATION.

• The Mahawanse or Great Dynasty 360
• The Suluwanse or Inferior Dynasty 360
• Services rendered by the Great Dynasty 360
• Frequent usurpations and the cause 361
• Disputed successions 361
• Rising influence of the priesthood 362
• B.C. 104. Their first endowment with land 363
• Rapid increase of the temple estates 364
• Their possessions and their vow of poverty reconciled 364
• Acquire the compulsory labour of temple-tenants 365
• Impulse thus given to cultivation 365
• And to the construction of enormous tanks 365
• Tanks conferred on the temples 365
• The great tank of Minery formed, A.D. 272 365
• Subserviency of the kings to the priesthood 366
• Large possessions of the temples at the present day 366
• Cultivation of flowers for the temples 367
• Their singular profusion 367
• Fruit trees planted by the Buddhist sovereigns 367
• Edicts of Asoca 368

CHAP. VII.

FATE OF THE ABORIGINES.

• Aborigines forced to labour for the new settlers 369
• Immensity of the structures erected by them 370
• Slow amalgamation of the natives with the strangers 370
• The worship of snakes and demons continued 370
• Treatment of the aborigines by the kings 371
• Their formal disqualification for high office 371
• Their rebellions 371
• They retire into the mountains and forests 372
• Their singular habits of seclusion 372
• Traces of their customs at the present day 373

CHAP. VIII.

EXTINCTION OF THE GREAT DYNASTY.

• B.C. 104 Walagam-bahu I 374
• His wars with the Malabars 374
• The South of Ceylon free from Malabar invasion 374
• The Buddhist doctrines first formed into books 375
• The formation of rock-temples 376
• Apostacy of Chora Naga 376
• Ceylon governed by queens 377
• Schisms in religion 377
• Buddhism tolerant of heresy but intolerant of schism 378
• Illustrations of Buddhist toleration 377
• Tolerance enjoined by Asoca 377
• The Wytulian heresy 377
• Corruption of Buddhism by the impurities of Brahnmanism 380
• A.D. 275. Recantation and repentance of King Maha Sen 380
• End of the Solar race 381
• State of Ceylon at that period 381
• Prosperity of the North 381
• Description of Anarajapoora in the fourth century 382
• Its municipal organisation 382
• Its palaces and temples 382
• Popular error as to the area of the city (note) 383
• Multitudes of the priesthood described by Fa Hian 384