Common Science

Section 7. How things stick to one another: Adhesion.

Why is it that when a thing is broken it will not stay together without glue?

Why does chalk stay on the blackboard?

Now that you have found out something about capillary attraction, suppose that you should go to the imaginary switchboard again and tamper with some other law of nature. An innocent-looking switch, right above the capillary attraction switch, would be labeled Adhesion. Suppose you have turned it off:

In an instant the wall paper slips down from the walls and crumples to a heap on the floor. The paint and varnish drop from the woodwork like so much sand. Every cobweb and speck of dust rolls off and falls in a little black heap below.

When you try to wash, you cannot wet your hands. But they do not need washing, as the dirt tumbles off, leaving them cleaner than they ever were before. You can jump into a tank of water with all your clothes on and come out as dry as you went in. You discover by the dryness of your clothes that capillary attraction stopped when the adhesion was turned off, for capillary attraction is just a part of adhesion. But you are not troubled now with the clamminess of unabsorbed perspiration. The perspiration rolls off in little drops, not wetting anything but running to the ground like so much quicksilver.

Your hair is fluffier than after the most vigorous shampoo. Your skin smarts with dryness. Your eyes are almost blinded by their lack of tears. Even when you cry, the tears roll from your eyeballs and eyelids like water from a duck's back. Your mouth is too dry to talk; all the saliva rolls down your throat, leaving your tongue and cheeks as dry as cornstarch.

I think you would soon turn on the adhesion switch again.

Experiment 15. Touch the surface of a glass of water, and then raise your finger slightly. Notice whether the water tends to follow or to keep away from your finger as you raise it. Now dip your whole finger into the water and draw it out. Notice how the water clings, and watch the drops form and fall off. Notice the film of water that stays on, wetting your finger, after all dropping stops.

Which do you think is the stronger, the pull of gravity which makes some of the water drip off, or the pull of adhesion which makes some of the water cling to your finger?

If the pull of gravity is stronger, would not all the water drop off, leaving your finger dry? If the pull of adhesion is the stronger, would not all the water stay on your finger, none dropping off?

The truth of the matter is that gravity is stronger than adhesion unless things are very close together; then adhesion is stronger. The part of the water that is very close to your finger clings to it in spite of gravity; the part that is farther away forms drops and falls down because of the pull of gravity.

Adhesion, then, is the force that makes things cling to each other when they are very close together.

Why it is easier to turn a page if you wet your finger. Water spreads out on things so that it gets very close to them. The thin film of water on your finger is close enough to your finger and to the page which you are turning to cling to both; so when you move your finger, the page moves along with it.

Why dust clings to the ceiling and walls. The fine particles of dust are wafted up against the ceiling and walls by the moving air in the room. They are so small that they can fit into the small dents that are in plaster and paper and can get very close to the wall. Once they get close enough, the force of adhesion holds them with a pull stronger than that of gravity.

Oily and wet surfaces catch dust much more readily than clean, dry ones, simply because the dust can get so much closer to the oil or water film and because this film flows partly around each dust particle and holds it by the force of adhesion. This is why your face gets much dirtier when it is perspiring than when it is dry.

Application 12. Explain why cobwebs do not fall from the ceiling; why dust clings to a wet broom; why a postage stamp does not fall off an envelope.

Inference Exercise

Explain the following:

41. There are no springs on the tops of high mountains.

42. People used to shake sand over their letters after writing them in ink.

43. People used to make night lights for bedrooms by pouring some oil into a cup of water and floating a piece of wick on the oil. The oil always stayed on top of the water, and went up through the wick fast enough to keep the light burning.

44. Your face becomes much dirtier when you are perspiring.

45. Ink bottles are usually made with wide bases.

46. When you spill water on the floor, you cannot wipe it up with wrapping paper, but you can dry it easily with a cloth.

47. Oiled mops are used in taking up dust.

48. Cake will stick to a pan unless the pan is greased.

49. Although the earth turns completely over every day, we never fall off it.

50. Signs are fastened sometimes to windows or to the wind shields of automobiles by little rubber "suction caps."

Section 8. The force that makes a thing hold together: Cohesion.

What makes rain fall in drops?

Why are diamonds hard?

You have not yet touched any of the most dangerous switches on the imaginary switchboard of universal laws. But if your experience in turning off the capillary attraction and adhesion switches did not discourage you, you might try turning off the one beside them labeled Cohesion:

Things happen too swiftly for you to know much about them. The house you are in falls to dust instantly. You fall through the place where the floor has been; but you do not bump on the cement basement floor below, partly because there is no such thing as a hard floor or even hard ground anywhere, and partly because you disintegrate—fall to pieces—so completely that there is nothing left of you but a grayish film of fine dust and a haze of warm water.

With a deafening roar, rocks, skyscrapers, and even mountains tumble down, fall to pieces, and sink into an inconceivably fine dust. Nothing stands up in the world—not a tree, not an animal, not an island. With a wild rush the oceans flood in over the dust that has been nations and continents, and then this dust turns to a fine muddy ooze in the bottom of a worldwide sea.

But it is an ocean utterly different from what we have in the real world. There are no waves. Neither are there any reflections of clouds in its surface,—first because the clouds would fly to pieces and turn to invisible vapor, and second, because the ocean has no surface—it simply melts away into the air and no one can tell where the water stops and where the air begins.

Then the earth grows larger and larger. The ocean turns to a heavy, dense, transparent steam. The fine mud that used to be rocks and mountains and living things turns to a heavy, dense gas.

Our once beautiful, solid, warm, living earth now whirls on through space, a swollen, gaseous globe, utterly dead.

And the only thing that prevents all this from actually happening right now is that there is a force called cohesion that holds things together. It is the pull which one particle of anything has on another particle of the same material. The paper in this book, the chair on which you are sitting, and you yourself are all made of a vast number of unthinkably small particles called molecules, each of which is pulling on its neighbor with such force that all stay in their places. Substances in which they pull the hardest, like steel, are very hard to break in two; that is, it is difficult to pull the molecules of these substances apart. In liquids, such as water, the molecules do not pull nearly so hard on each other. In a gas, such as air, they are so far apart that they have practically no pull on each other at all. That is why everything would turn to a gas if the force of cohesion stopped. Why things would turn cold will be explained in Chapter 4.

Cohesion, adhesion, and capillary attraction, all are the result of the pull of molecules on each other. The difference is that capillary attraction is the pulling of particles of liquids up into fine spaces, as when a lamp wick draws up oil; adhesion is the pull of the particles of one substance or thing on the particles of another when they are very close together, as when water clings to your hand or when dust sticks to the ceiling; while cohesion is the clinging together of the particles of the same substance, like the holding together of the particles of your chair or of this paper.

When you put your hand into water it gets wet because the adhesion of the water to your hand is stronger than the cohesion of the water itself. The particles of the water are drawn to your hand more powerfully than they are drawn to each other. But in the following experiment, you have an example of cases where cohesion is stronger than adhesion:

Experiment 16. Pour some mercury (quicksilver) into a small dish and dip your finger into it. As you raise your finger, see if the mercury follows it up as the water did in Experiment 14. When you pull your finger all the way out, has the mercury wet it at all? Put a lamp wick or a part of your handkerchief into the mercury. Does it draw the mercury up as it would draw up water?

The reason for this peculiarity of mercury is that the pull between the particles of mercury themselves is stronger than the pull between them and your finger or handkerchief. In scientific language, the cohesion of the mercury is stronger than its adhesion to your finger or handkerchief. Although this seems unusual for a liquid, it is what we naturally expect of solid things; you would be amazed if part of the wood of your school seat stuck to you when you got up, for you expect the particles in solid things to cohere—to have cohesion—much more strongly than they adhere to something else. It is because solids have such strong cohesion that they are solids.

Application 13. Explain why mercury cannot wet your fingers; why rain falls in drops; why it is harder to drive a nail into wood than into soap; why steel is hard.

Inference Exercise

Explain the following:

51. Ink spilled on a plain board soaks in, but on a varnished desk it can be easily wiped off.

52. When a window is soiled you can write on it with your finger; then your finger becomes soiled.

53. A starched apron or shirt stays clean longer than an unstarched one.

54. When you hold a lump of sugar with one edge just touching the surface of a cup of coffee, the coffee runs up the lump.

55. A drop of water on a dry plate is not flat but rounded.

56. It is hard to write on cloth because the ink spreads out and blurs.

57. If you roughen your finger nails by cleaning them with a knife, they will get soiled much more quickly than if you keep them smooth by using an orange stick.

58. When you dip your pen in the ink and then move it across the paper, it makes ink marks on the paper.

59. If you suck the air out of a bottle, the bottle will stick to your tongue.

60. You cannot break a thick piece of iron with your hands.

Section 9. Friction.

What makes ice slippery?

How does a brake stop a car?

Why do things wear out?

It would not be such a calamity if we were to turn off friction from the world. Still, I doubt whether we should want to leave it off much longer than was necessary for us to see what would happen. Suppose we imagine the world with all friction removed:

A man on a bicycle can coast forever along level ground. Ships at sea can shut off steam and coast clear across the ocean. No machinery needs oiling. The clothes on your body feel smoother and softer than the finest silk. Perpetual motion is an established fact instead of an absolute impossibility; everything that is not going against gravity will keep right on moving forever or until it bumps into something else.

But, if there is no friction and you want to stop, you cannot. Suppose you are in an automobile when all friction stops. You speed along helplessly in the direction you are going. You cannot steer the machine—your hands would slip right around on the steering wheel, and even if you turn it by grasping the spoke, your machine still skids straight forward. If you start to go up a hill, you slow down, stop, and then before you can get out of the machine you start backward down the hill again and keep on going backward until you smash into something.

A person on foot does not fare much better. If he is walking at the time friction ceases, the ground is suddenly so slippery that he falls down and slides along on his back or stomach in the same direction he was walking, until he bumps into something big or starts to slip up a slope. If he reaches a slope, he, like the automobile, stops an instant a little way up, then starts sliding helplessly backward.

Another man is standing still when the friction is turned off. He cannot get anywhere. As soon as he starts to walk forward, his feet slip out from under him and he falls on his face. He lies in the same spot no matter how he wriggles and squirms. If he tries to push with his hands, they slip over the rough ground more easily than they now slip through air. He cannot push sideways enough even to turn over. If there happens to be a rope within reach and one end is tied to a tree, he might try to take hold of the rope to pull himself along. But no matter how tightly he squeezes, the rope slips right through his hands when he starts to pull. If, however, there is a loop in the rope, he can slip his hand through the loop and try to pull. But the knots with which the rope is tied immediately come untied and he is as helpless as ever.

Even if he takes hold of a board fence he is no more successful. The nails in the board slip out of their holes and he is left with a perfectly slippery and useless board on the ground beside him for a companion. As it grows cold toward evening he may take some matches out of his pocket and try to start a fire. Aside from the difficulty of his being unable to hold them except by the most careful balancing or by shutting them up within his slippery hands, he is entirely incapable of lighting them; they slip over the cement beneath him or over the sole of his shoe without the least rubbing.

In the real world, however, it is fortunately as impossible to get away from friction as it is to get away from the other laws we have tried to imagine as being turned off. There is always some friction, or rubbing, whenever anything moves. A bird rubs against the air, the point of a spinning top rubs against the sidewalk on which it is spinning. Your shoes rub against the ground as you walk and so make it possible for you to push yourself forward. The drive wheels of machinery rub against the belts and pull them along. There is friction between the wheels of a car and the track they are pushing against, or the wheels would whirl around and around uselessly.

But we can increase or decrease friction a great deal. If we make things rough, there is more friction between them than if they are smooth. If we press things tightly together, there is more friction than if they touch lightly. A nail in a loose hole comes out easily, but in a tight hole it sticks; the pressure has increased the friction. A motorman in starting a trolley car sometimes finds the track so smooth that the wheels whirl around without pushing the car forward; he pours some sand on the track to make it rougher, and the car starts. When you put on new shoes, they are so smooth on the bottom that they slip over the ground because of the lack of friction. If you scratch the soles, they are rougher and you no longer slip. If you try to pull a stake out of the ground, you have to squeeze it harder than the ground does or it will slip out of your hands instead of slipping out of the ground. When you apply a brake to an automobile, the brake must press tightly against the axle or wheel to cause enough friction to stop the automobile.

There are always two results of friction: heat and wear. Sometimes these effects of friction are helpful to us, and sometimes they are quite the opposite. The heat from friction is helpful when it makes it possible for us to light a fire, but it is far from helpful when it causes a hot box because of an ungreased wheel on a train or wagon, or burns your hands when you slide down a rope. The wear from friction is helpful when it makes it possible to sandpaper a table, scour a pan, scrub a floor, or erase a pencil mark; but we don't like it when it wears out automobile tires, all the parts of machinery, and our clothes.

Experiment 17. Hold a nail against a grindstone while you turn the stone. Notice both the wear and heat. Let the nail rest lightly on the stone part of the time and press hard part of the time. Which way does the nail get hotter? Which way does it wear off more quickly? Run it over a pane of glass and see if it gets as hot as it does on the grindstone; if it wears down as quickly.

Why we oil machinery. We can decrease friction by keeping objects from pressing tightly against each other, and by making their surfaces smooth. The most common way of making surfaces smooth is by oiling or greasing them. A film of oil or grease makes things so smooth and slippery that there is very little friction. That is why all kinds of machinery will run so smoothly if they are kept oiled. And since the oil decreases friction, it decreases the wear caused by friction. So well-oiled machines last much longer than machines that are not sufficiently oiled.

Why ball bearings are used. There is much less friction when a round object rolls over a surface than when two surfaces slide over one another, unless the sliding surfaces are very smooth; think how much easier it is to pull a wagon forward than it would be to take hold of the wheels and pull the wagon sidewise. So when you want the least possible friction in a machine you use ball bearings. The bearings are located in the hub of a wheel. Then, instead of the axle rubbing against the hub, the bearings roll inside of the hub. This causes very little friction; and the friction is made still less by keeping the bearings oiled.

Application 14. Suppose you were making a bicycle,—in which of the following places would you want to increase the friction, and in which would you want to decrease it? Handle grips, axles, pedals, tires, pedal cranks, the sockets in which the handle bar turns, the nuts that hold the parts together.

Application 15. A small boy decided to surprise his mother by oiling her sewing-machine. He put oil in the following places:

On the treadle, on the large wheel over which the belt runs, on the axle of the same wheel, on the groove in the little wheel up above where the belt runs, on the joint where the needle runs up and down, on the little rough place under the needle that pushes the cloth forward. Which of these did he do well to oil and which should he have let alone?

Inference Exercise

Explain the following:

61. Rivers flow north as well as south, although we usually speak of north as "up north."

62. Tartar and bits of food stick to your teeth.

63. Brushing your teeth with tooth powder cleans them.

64. When a chair has gliders (smooth metal caps) on its feet, it slides easily across the floor.

65. When you wet your finger, you can turn a page more easily.

66. A lamp wick draws oil up from the lower part of a lamp to the burner.

67. The sidewalks on steep hills are made of rough cement.

68. Certain fish can rise in the water by expanding their air bladders, although this does not make them weigh any less.

69. When your hands are cold, you rub them together to warm them.

70. It is dangerous to stand up in a rowboat or canoe.

CHAPTER THREE

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Section 10. Levers.

How a big weight can be lifted with a little force; how one thing moving slowly a short distance can make another move swiftly a long distance.

Why can you go so much faster on a bicycle than on foot?

How can a man lift up a heavy automobile by using a jack?

Why can you crack a hard nut with a nutcracker when you cannot crack it by squeezing it between two pieces of iron?

"Give me a lever, long enough and strong enough, and something to rest it on, and I can lift the whole world," said an old Greek philosopher. And as a philosopher he was right; theoretically it would be possible. But since he needed a lever that would have been as long as from here to the farthest star whose distance has ever been measured, and since he would have had to push his end of the lever something like a quintillion (1,000,000,000,000,000,000) miles to lift the earth one inch, his proposition was hardly a practical one.

But levers are practical. Without them there would be none of our modern machines. No locomotives could speed across the continents; no derricks could lift great weights; no automobiles or bicycles would quicken our travel; our very bodies would be completely paralyzed. Yet the law back of all these things is really simple.

You have often noticed on the see-saw that a small child at one end can be balanced by a larger child at the other end, provided that the larger child sits nearer the middle. Why should it matter where the larger child sits? He is always heavier—why doesn't he overbalance the small child? It is because when the small child moves up and down he goes a longer distance than the large child does. In Figure 26 the large boy moves up and down only half as far as the little girl does. She weighs only half as much as he, yet she balances him.

You will begin to get a general understanding of levers and how they work by doing the following experiment:

Experiment 18. For this experiment there will be needed a small pail filled with something heavy (sand or stones will do), a yardstick with a hole through the middle and another hole near one end and with notches cut here and there along the edge, and a post or table corner with a heavy nail driven into it to within an inch of the head. The holes in the yardstick must be large enough to let the head of this nail through.

Put the middle hole of the yardstick over the nail, as is shown in Figure 27. The nail is the fulcrum of your lever. Now hang the pail on one of the notches about halfway between the fulcrum and the end of the stick and put your hand on the opposite side of the yardstick at about the same distance as the pail is from the fulcrum. Raise and lower the pail several times by moving the opposite end of the lever up and down. See how much force it takes to move the pail.

Now slide your hand toward the fulcrum and lower and raise the pail from that position. Is it harder or easier to lift the pail from here than from the first position? Which moves farther up and down, your hand or the pail?

Next, slide your hand all the way out to the end of the yardstick and raise and lower the pail from there. Is the pail harder or easier to lift? Does the pail move a longer or a shorter distance up and down than your hand?

If you wanted to move the pail a long way without moving your hand as far, would you put your hand nearer to the fulcrum or farther from it than the pail is?

Suppose you wanted to lift the pail with the least possible effort, where would you put your hand?

Notice another fact: when your hand is at the end of the yardstick, it takes the same length of time to move a long way as the pail takes to move a short way. Then which is moving faster, your hand or the pail?

Experiment 19. Put the end hole of the yardstick on the nail, as shown in Figure 28. The nail is still the fulcrum of your lever. Put the pail about halfway between the fulcrum and the other end of the stick, and hold the end of the stick in your hands.

Raise and lower your hand to see how hard or how easy it is to lift the pail from this position. Which is moving farther, your hand or the pail? Which is moving faster?

Now put your hand about halfway between the fulcrum and the pail and raise and lower it. Is it harder or easier to raise than before? Which moves farther this time, your hand or the pail? Which moves faster?

If you wanted to make the pail move farther and faster than your hand, would you put your hand nearer to the fulcrum than the pail is, or farther from the fulcrum than the pail? If you wanted to move the pail with the least effort, where would you put your hand?

Experiment 20. Use a pair of long-bladed shears and fold a piece of cardboard once to lie astride your own or some one else's finger. Put the finger, protected by the cardboard, between the two points of the shears. Then squeeze the handles of the shears together. See if you can bring the handles together hard enough to hurt the finger between the points.

Now watch the shears as you open and close the blades. Which move farther, the points of the shears or the handles? Which move faster?

Next, put the finger, still protected by the cardboard, between the handles of the shears and press the points together. Can you pinch the finger this way harder or less hard than in the way you first tried?

Do the points or handles move farther as you close the shears? Which part closes with the greater force?

Experiment 21. Use a Dover egg beater. Fasten a small piece of string to one of the blades, so that you can tell how many times it goes around. Turn the handle of the beater around once slowly and count how many times the blade goes around. Which moves faster, the handle or the blade? Where would you expect to find more force, in the cogs or in the blades? Test your conclusion this way: Put your finger between the blades and try to pinch it by turning the handle; then place your finger so that the skin is caught between the cogs and try to pinch the finger by turning the blades. Where is there more force? Where is there more motion?

Fig. 31. When the handle is turned the blades of the egg beater move much more rapidly than the hand. Will they pinch hard enough to hurt?

Fig. 32. His hand goes down as far as the pail goes up.

Experiment 22. Put a spool over the nail which was your fulcrum in the first two experiments. (Take the stick off the nail first, of course.) Use this spool as a pulley. Put a string over it and fasten one end of your string to the pail (Fig. 32). Lift the pail by pulling down on the other end of the string. Notice that it is not harder or easier to move the pail when it is near the nail than when it is near the floor. When your hand moves down from the nail to the floor, how far up does the pail move? Does the pail move a greater or less distance than your hand, or does it move the same distance?

Fig. 33. With this arrangement the pail travels more slowly than the hand. Will it seem heavier or lighter than with the arrangement shown in Figure 32?

Next fasten one end of the string to the nail. Set the pail on the floor. Pass the string through the handle of the pail and up over the spool (Fig. 33). Pull down on the loose end of the string. Is the pail easier to lift in this way or in the way you first tried? As you pull down with your hand, notice whether your hand moves farther than the pail, not so far as the pail, or the same distance. Is the greater amount of motion in your hand or in the pail? Then where would you expect the greater amount of force?

Application 16. Suppose you wanted to lift a heavy frying pan off the stove. You have a cloth to keep it from burning your hand. Would it be easier to lift it by the end of the handle or by the part of the handle nearest the pan?

Application 17. A boy was going to wheel his little sister in a wheelbarrow. She wanted to sit in the middle of the wheelbarrow; her brother thought she should sit as near the handles as possible so that she would be nearer his hands. Another boy thought she should sit as near the wheel as possible. Who was right?

Application 18. James McDougal lived in a hilly place. He was going to buy a bicycle. "I want one that will take the hills easily," he said. The dealer showed him two bicycles. On one the back wheel went around three times while the pedals went around once; on the other the back wheel went around four and a half times while the pedals went around once. Which bicycle should James have chosen? If he had wanted the bicycle for racing, which should he have chosen?

Application 19. A wagon stuck in the mud. The driver got out and tried to help the horse by grasping the spokes and turning the wheel. Should he have grasped the spokes near the hub, near the rim, or in the middle?

Inference Exercise

Explain the following:

71. When you turn on the faucet of a distilled-water bottle, bubbles go up through the water as the water pours out.

72. A clothes wringer has a long handle. It wrings the clothes drier than you can wring them by hand.

73. You use a crowbar when you want to raise a heavy object such as a rock.

74. Sometimes it is almost impossible to get the top from a jar of canned fruit unless you let a little air under the edge of the lid.

75. It is much easier to carry a carpet sweeper if you take hold near the sweeper part than it is if you take hold at the end of the handle.

76. You can make marks on a paper by rubbing a pencil across it.

77. A motorman sands the track when he wishes to stop the car on a hill.

78. On a faucet there is a handle with which to turn it.

79. Before we pull candy we butter our fingers.

80. You can scratch glass with very hard steel but not with wood.

Section 11. Inertia.

Why is it that if you push a miniature auto rapidly, it will go straight?

Why does the earth never stop moving?

When you jerk a piece of paper from under an inkwell, why does the inkwell stay still?

When you are riding in a car and the car stops suddenly, you are thrown forward; your body tends to keep moving in the direction in which the car was going. When a car starts suddenly, you are thrown backward; your body tends to stay where it was before the car started.

When an automobile bumps into anything, the people in the front seat are often thrown forward through the wind shield and are badly cut; their bodies keep on going in the direction in which the automobile was going.

When you jump off a moving street car, you have to run along in the direction the car was going or you fall down; your body tries to keep going in the same direction it was moving, and if your feet do not keep up, you topple forward.

Generally we think that it takes force to start things to move, but that they will stop of their own accord. This is not true. It takes just as much force to stop a thing as it does to start it, and what usually does the stopping is friction.

When you shoot a stone in a sling shot, the contracting rubber pulls the stone forward very rapidly. The stone has been started and it would go on and never stop if nothing interfered with it. For instance, if you should go away off in space—say halfway between here and a star—and shoot a stone from a sling shot, that stone would keep on going as fast as it was going when it left your sling shot, forever and ever, without stopping, unless it bumped into a star or something. On earth the reason it stops after a while is that it is bumping into something all the time—into the particles of air while it is in the air, and finally against the earth when it is pulled to the ground by gravity.

If you threw a ball on the moon, the person who caught it would have to have a very thick mitt to protect his hand, and it would never be safe to catch a batted fly. For there is no air on the moon, and therefore nothing would slow the ball down until it hit something; and it would be going as hard and fast when it struck the hand of the one who caught it as when it left your hand or the bat.

Try these experiments:

Experiment 23. Fill a glass almost to the brim with water. Lay a smooth piece of writing paper 10 or 11 inches long on a smooth table, placing it near the edge of the table. Set the glass of water on the paper near its inner edge (Fig. 34).

Take hold of the edge of the paper that is near the edge of the table. Move your hand a little toward the glass so that the paper is somewhat bent. Then, keeping your hand near the level of the table, suddenly jerk the paper out from under the glass. If you give a quick enough jerk and keep your hand near the level of the table, not a drop of water will spill and the glass will stay almost exactly where it was.

This is because the glass of water has inertia. It was standing still, and so it tends to remain standing still. Your jerk was so sudden that there was not time to overcome the inertia of the glass of water; so it stayed where it was.

Inertia is the tendency of a thing to keep on going forever in the same direction if once it is started, or to stand still forever unless something starts it. If moving things did not have inertia (if they did not tend to keep right on moving in the same direction forever or until something changed their motion), you could not throw a ball; the second you let go of it, it would stop and fall to the ground. You could not shoot a bullet any distance; as soon as the gases of the gunpowder had stopped pushing against it, it would stop dead and fall. There would be no need of brakes on trains or automobiles; the instant the steam or gasoline was shut off, the train or auto would come to a dead stop. But you would not be jerked in the least by the stopping, because as soon as the automobile or train stopped, your body too would stop moving forward. Your automobile could even crash into a building without your being jarred. For when the machine came to a sudden stop, you would not be thrown forward at all, but would sit calmly in the undamaged automobile.

If you sat in a swing and some one ran under you, you would keep going up till he let go, and then you would be pulled down by gravity just as you now are. But just as soon as the swing was straight up and down you would stop; there would be no inertia to make you keep on swinging back and up.

If the inertia of moving things stopped, the clocks would no longer run, the pendulums would no longer swing, nor the balance wheels turn; nothing could be thrown; it would be impossible to jump; there would cease to be waves on the ocean; and the moon would come tumbling to the earth. The earth would stop spinning; so there would be no change from day to night; and it would stop swinging about in its orbit and start on a rush toward the sun.

But there is always inertia. And all things everywhere and all the time tend to remain stock still if they are still, until some force makes them move; and all things that are moving tend to keep on moving at the same speed and in the same direction, until something stops them or turns them in another direction.

Application 20. Explain why you should face forward when alighting from a street car; why a croquet ball keeps rolling after you hit it; why you feel a jolt when you jump down from a high place.

Inference Exercise

Explain the following:

81. It is much easier to erase charcoal drawings than water-color paintings.

82. When an elevator starts down suddenly you feel lighter for a moment, while if it starts up quickly you feel heavier.

83. You can draw a nail with a claw hammer when you could not possibly pull it with your hand even if you could get hold of it.

84. When an automobile bumps into anything, the people in the front seat are often thrown forward through the wind shield.

85. Certain weighted dolls will rise and stand upright, no matter in what position you lay them down.

86. Some automobile tires have little rubber cups all over them which are supposed to make the tires cling to the pavement and thus prevent skidding.

87. It is hard to move beds and bureaus which have no castors or gliders.

88. When you jump off a moving street car, you lean back.

89. All water flows toward the oceans sooner or later.

90. You can skate on ice, but not on a sidewalk, with ice skates.

Section 12. Centrifugal force.

Why does not the moon fall down to the earth?

Why will a lasso go so far after it is whirled?

Why does a top stand on its point while it is spinning?

If centrifugal force suddenly stopped acting, you would at first not notice any change. But if you happened to get into an automobile and rode down a muddy street, you would be delighted to find that the mud did not fly up from the wheels as you sped along. And when you went around a slippery corner, your automobile would not skid in the least.

If a dog came out of a pool of water and shook himself while centrifugal force was not acting, the water, instead of flying off in every direction, would merely drip down to the ground as if the dog were not shaking himself at all. A cowboy would find that he could no longer throw his lasso by whirling it around his head. A boy trying to spin his top would discover that the top would not stand on its point while spinning, any better than when it was not spinning.

These are little things, however. Most people would be quite unconscious of any change for some time. Then, as night came on and the full moon rose, it would look as if it were growing larger and larger. It would seem slowly to swell and swell until it filled the whole sky. Then with a stupendous crash the moon would collide with the earth. Every one would be instantly killed. And it would be lucky for them that they were; for if any people survived the shock of the awful collision, they would be roasted to death by the heat produced by the striking together of the earth and the moon. Moreover, the earth would be whirled swiftly toward the sun, and a little later the charred earth would be swept into the sun's vast, tempestuous flames.

When we were talking about inertia, we said that if there were no inertia, the moon would tumble down to the earth and the earth, too, would fall into the sun. That was because if there were no inertia there would be no centrifugal force. For centrifugal force is not really a force at all, but it is one form of inertia—the inertia of whirling things. Do this experiment:

Experiment 25. Hold a pail half full of water in one hand. Swing it back and forth a couple of times; then swing it swiftly forward, up, and on around, bringing it down back of you (Fig. 36). Swing it around this way swiftly and evenly several times, finally stopping at the beginning of the up swing.