—W.C. HARRIS: Fishing Up or Down Stream.
+Theme CXV.+—Persuade a friend, to choose some sport from one of the following pairs:—
1. Canoeing or sailing. 2. Bicycling or automobiling. 3. Golf or polo. 4. Basket ball or tennis. 5. Football or baseball.
+Theme CXVI.+—Choose one side of a proposition. Name the probable points on the other side and write out a refutation of them.
+Theme CXVII.+—State a proposition and write the direct argument.
+Theme CXVIII.+—Exchange theme CXVII for one written by a classmate and write the refutation of the arguments in the theme you receive.
(Theme CXVII and the corresponding Theme CXVIII should be read before the class.)
SUMMARY
1. Argument is that form of discourse which attempts to prove the truth of a proposition.
2. Inductive reasoning is that process by which from many individual cases we establish the probable truth of a general proposition.
3. The establishing of a general truth by induction requires—
a. That there be a large number of facts, circumstances, or specific
instances supporting it.
b. That these facts be true.
c. That they be pertinent.
d. That there be no facts proving the truth of the contrary
proposition.
4. Deductive reasoning is that process which attempts to prove the truth of a specific proposition by showing that a general theory applies to it.
5. The establishing of the truth of a specific proposition by deductive
reasoning requires—
a. A major premise that makes an affirmation about all the members
of a class.
b. A minor premise that states that the individual under consideration
belongs to the class named.
c. A conclusion that states that the affirmation made about the class
applies to the individual. These three statements constitute a
syllogism.
6. An enthymeme is a syllogism with but one premise expressed.
7. Errors of deduction arise—
a. If terms are not used throughout with the same meaning.
b. If the major premise does not make a statement about every member
of the class denoted by the middle term.
c. If either premise is false.
8. Belief in a specific proposition may arise—
a. Because of the presentation of evidence which is true and
pertinent.
b. Because of a belief in some general principle or theory which
applies to it.
In arguing therefore we—
a. Present true and pertinent facts, or evidence; or
b. Appeal directly to general theories, or by means of facts, maxims,
allusions, inferences, or the quoting of authorities, seek to call
up such theories.
9. Classes of arguments:— a. Arguments from cause. b. Arguments from sign and attendant circumstances. c. Arguments from example and analogy.
10. Arrangement.
a. Arguments from cause should precede arguments from sign, and
arguments from sign should precede arguments from example.
b. Inductive arguments usually precede deductive arguments.
c. Arguments should be arranged with reference to climax.
d. Arguments should be arranged, when possible, in a coherent order.
11. In making a brief the above principles of arrangement should be observed. Attention should be given to unity so that the trivial and false may be excluded.
12. Persuasion is argument that aims to establish the wisdom of a course of action.
13. Persuasion appeals largely to the feelings.
a. Those feelings of satisfaction resulting from approval,
commendation, or praise, or the desire to avoid blame, disaster,
or loss of self-esteem.
b. Those feelings resulting from the proper and legitimate use of
one's powers.
c. Those feelings which arise from possession, either actual or
anticipated.
14. Persuasion is concerned with— a. Questions of right. b. Questions of expediency.
APPENDIX
I. ELEMENTS OF FORM
+1. Importance of Form.+—The suggestions which have been made for the correction of the Themes have laid emphasis upon the thought. Though the thought side is the more important, yet careful attention must also be given to the form in which it is stated. If we wish to express our thoughts so that they will be understood by others, we shall be surer to succeed if we use the forms to which our hearers are accustomed. The great purpose of composition is the clear expression of thought, and this is aided by the use of the forms which are conventional and customary.
Wrong habits of speech indicate looseness and carelessness of thought, and if not corrected show a lack of training. In speaking, our language goes directly to the listener without revision. It is, therefore, essential that we pay much attention to the form of the expression so that it may be correct when we use it. Our aim should be to avoid an error rather than to correct it.
Similarly in writing, your effort should be given to avoiding errors rather than to correcting those already made. A misspelled word or an incorrect grammatical form in the letter that you send to a business man may show you to be so careless and inaccurate that he will not wish to have you in his employ. In such a case it is only the avoidance of the error that is of value. You must determine for yourself that the letter is correct before you send it. This same condition should prevail with reference to your school themes. The teacher may return these for correction, but you must not forget that the purpose of this correction is merely to emphasize the correct form so that you will use it in your next theme. It will be helpful to have some one point out your individual mistakes, but it is only by attention to them on your own part and by a definite and long-continued effort to avoid them that you will really accomplish much toward the establishing of correct language habits. In this, as in other things, the most rapid progress will be made by doing but one thing at a time.
Many matters of form are already familiar to you. A brief statement of these is made in order to serve as a review and to secure uniformity in class work.
1. Neatness.—All papers should be free from blots and finger marks. Corrections should be neatly done. Care in correcting or interlining will often render copying unnecessary.
2. Legibility.—Excellence of thought is not dependent upon penmanship, and the best composition may be the most difficult to read. A poorly written composition is, however, more likely to be considered bad than one that is well written. A plain, legible, and rapid handwriting is so valuable an accomplishment that it is well worth acquiring.
3. Paper.—White, unruled paper, about 8-1/2 by 11 inches, is best for composition purposes. The ability to write straight across the page without the aid of lines can be acquired by practice. It is customary to write on only one side of the paper.
4. Margins.—Leave a margin of about one inch at the left of the sheet. Except in formal notes and special forms there will be no margin at the right. Care should be taken to begin the lines at the left exactly under each other, but the varying length of words makes it impossible to end the lines at the right at exactly the same place. A word should not be crowded into a space too small for it, nor should part of it be put on the next line, as is customary in printing, unless it is a compound one, such as steam-boat. Spaces of too great length at the end of a line may be avoided by slightly lengthening the preceding words or the spaces between them.
5. Spacing.—Each theme should have a title. It should be placed in the center of the line above the composition, and should have all important words capitalized. Titles too long for a single line may be written as follows:—
MY TRIP TO CHICAGO ON A BICYCLE
With unruled paper some care must be taken to keep the lines the same distance apart. The spaces between sentences should be somewhat greater than those between words. Paragraphs are indicated by indentations.
6. Corrections.—These are best made by using a sharp knife or an ink eraser. Sometimes, if neatly done, a line may be drawn through an incorrect word and the correct one written above it. Omitted words may be written between the lines and the place where they belong indicated by a caret. If a page contains many corrections, it should be copied.
7. Inscription and Folding.—The teacher will give directions as to inscription and folding. He will indicate what information he wishes, such as name, class, date, etc., and where it is to be written. Each page should be numbered. If the paper is folded, it should be done with neatness and precision.
+2. Capitals.+—The use of capitals will serve to illustrate the value of using conventional forms. We are so accustomed to seeing a proper name, such as Mr. Brown, written with capitals that we should be puzzled if we should find it written without capitals. The sentence, Ben-Hur was written by Lew Wallace, would look unfamiliar if written without capitals. We are so used to our present forms that beginning sentences with small letters would hinder the ready comprehension of the thought. Everybody agrees that capitals should be used to begin sentences, direct questions, names of deity, days of the week, the months, each line of poetry, the pronoun I, the interjection O, etc., and no good writer will fail to use them. Usage varies somewhat in regard to capitals in some other places. Such expressions as Ohio river, Lincoln school, Jackson county, state of Illinois, once had both names capitalized. The present tendency is to write them as above. Even titles of honor are not capitalized unless they are used with a proper name; for example, He introduced General Grant The general then spoke.
+3. Rules of Capitalization.+—1. Every sentence and every line of poetry begin with capitals.
2. Every direct quotation, except brief phrases and subordinate parts of sentences, begins with a capital.
3. Proper nouns and adjectives derived from proper nouns begin with capitals. Some adjectives, though derived from proper nouns, are no longer capitalized; e.g. voltaic.
4. Titles of honor when used with the name of a person begin with capitals.
5. The first word and every important word in the titles of books, etc., begin with capitals.
6. The pronoun I and the interjection O are always capitalized.
7. Names applied to the Deity are capitalized and pronouns referring thereto, especially if personal, are usually capitalized.
8. Important words are often capitalized for emphasis, especially words in text-books indicating topics.
+4. Punctuation.+—The meaning of a sentence depends largely on the grouping of words that are related in sense to each other. When we are reading aloud we make the sense clear by bringing out to the hearer this grouping. This is accomplished by the use of pauses and by emphasis and inflection. In writing we must do for the eye what inflection and pauses do for the ear. We therefore use punctuation marks to indicate inflection and emphasis, and especially to show word grouping. Punctuation marks are important because their purpose is to assist in making the sense clear. There are many special rules more or less familiar to you, but they may all be included under the one general statement: Use such marks and only such marks as will assist the reader in getting the sense.
What marks we shall use and how we shall use them will be determined by custom. In order to benefit a reader, marks must be used in ways with which he is familiar. Punctuation changes from time to time. The present tendency is to omit all marks not absolutely necessary to the clear understanding of the sentence.
There are some very definite rules, but there are others that cannot be made so definite, and the application of them requires care and judgment on the part of the writer. Improvement will come only by practice. Sentences should not be written for the purpose of illustrating punctuation. The meaning of what you are writing ought to be clear to you, and the punctuation marks should be put in as you write, not inserted afterward.
+5. Rules for the Use of the Comma.+—1. The comma is used to separate words or phrases having the same construction, used in a series.
Judges, senators, and representatives were imprisoned.
The country is a good place to be born in, a good place to die in, a
good place to live in at least part of the year.
If any conjunctions are used to connect the last two members, the comma may or may not be used in connection with the conjunction.
The cabbage palmetto affords shade, kindling, bed, and food.
2. Words or expressions in apposition should be separated by a comma.
The native Indian dress is an evolution, a survival from long years of
wild life.
3. Commas are used to separate words in direct address from the rest of the sentence.
Bow down, dear Land, for thou hast found release.
O, Sohrab, an unquiet heart is thine!
4. Introductory and parenthetical words or expressions are set off by commas.
However, the current is narrow and very shallow here.
This, in a general way, describes the scope of the small parks or playgrounds.
If the parenthetical expression is long and not very closely related to the rest of the sentence, dashes or marks of parenthesis are frequently used. Some writers use them even when the connection is somewhat close.
5. The comma is frequently used to separate the parts of a long compound predicate.
Pine torches have no glass to break, and are within the reach of any man
who can wield an ax.
6. A comma is often used to separate a subject with several modifiers, or with a long modifier, from the predicate verb.
One of the mistakes often made in beginning the study of birds with small children, is in placing stress upon learning by sight and name as many species of birds as possible.
7. Participial and adjective phrases and adverb phrases out of their natural order should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
A knight, clad in armor, was the most conspicuous figure of all.
To the mind of the writer, this explanation has much to commend it.
8. When negative expressions are used in order to show a contrast, they are set off by commas.
They believed in men, not in mere workers in the great human workshop.
9. Commas are used in complex sentences to separate the dependent clause from the rest of the sentence.
The great majority of people would be better off, if they had more money
and spent it.
While the flour is being made, samples are sent every hour to the
testing department.
If the connection is close, the comma is usually omitted, especially when the dependent clause comes last.
I will be there when the train arrives.
10. When a relative clause furnishes an additional thought, it should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.
Hiram Watts, who has been living in New York for six years, has just
returned to England.
If the relative clause is restrictive, that is, if it restricts or limits the meaning of the antecedent, the comma is unnecessary.
This is the best article that he ever wrote.
11. Commas are used to separate the members of a compound sentence when they are short or closely connected.
Ireland is rich in minerals, yet there is but little mining done there.
Breathe it, exult in it,
All the day long,
Glide in it, leap in it,
Thrill it with song.
12. Short quotations should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.
"There must be a beaver dam here," he called.
13. The omissions of important words in a sentence should be indicated by commas.
If you can, come to-morrow; if not, come next week.
+6. Rules for the Use of the Semicolon.+—1. When the members of a compound sentence are long or are not closely connected, semicolons should be used to separate them.
Webster could address a bench of judges; Everett could charm a college; Choate could delude a jury; Clay could magnetize a senate, and Tom Corwin could hold the mob in his right hand; but no one of these men could do more than this one thing.
—Wendell Phillips.
We might as well decide the question now; for we shall surely be
obliged to soon.
2. When the members of a compound sentence themselves contain commas, they should be separated from one another by semicolons.
As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I rejoice at it; as he was valiant, I honor him; but, as he was ambitious, I slew him.
—Shakespeare.
3. The semicolon should be used to precede as, namely, i.e., e.g., viz.
Some adjectives are compared irregularly; as, good, bad, and little.
4. When a series of distinct statements all have a common dependence on what precedes or follows them, they may be separated from each other by semicolons.
When subject to the influence of cold we eat more; we choose more heat-producing foods, as fatty foodstuffs; we take more vigorous exercise; we put on more clothing, especially of the non-conducting kinds—woolens.
+7. Rules for the Use of the Colon.+—1. The colon is used before long or formal quotations, before enumerations, and before the conclusion of a previous statement.
Old Sir Thomas Browne shrewdly observes: "Every man is not only himself. There have been many Diogeneses and many Timons though but few of the name. Men are lived over again. The world is now as it was in ages past. There were none then, but there has been one since, that parallels him, and is, as it were, revived self."
—George Dana Boardman.
Adjectives are divided into two general classes: descriptive and
definitive adjectives.
The following members sent in their resignations: Mrs. William M.
Murphy, Mrs. Ralph B. Wiltsie, and Mrs. John C. Clark.
2. The colon is used to separate the different members of a compound sentence, when they themselves are divided by semicolons.
It is too warm to-day; the sunshine is too bright; the shade, too pleasant: we will wait until to-morrow or we will have some one else do it when the busy time is over.
+8. Rules for the Use of the Period.+—1. The period is used at the close of imperative and declarative sentences.
2. All abbreviations should be followed by a period.
+9. Rule for the Use of the Interrogation Mark.+—The interrogation mark should be used after all direct questions.
+10. Rule for the Use of the Exclamation Mark.+—Interjections and exclamatory words and expressions should be followed by the exclamation mark. Sometimes the exclamatory word is only a part of the whole exclamation. In this case, the exclamatory word should be followed by a comma, and the entire exclamation by an exclamation mark.
See, how the lightning flashes!
+11. Rules for the Use of the Dash.+—1. The dash is used to show sudden changes in thought or breaks in speech.
I can speak of this better when temptation comes my way—if it ever does.
2. The dash is often used in the place of commas or marks of parenthesis to set off parenthetical expressions.
In the mountains of New York State this most valuable tree—the spruce— abounds.
3. The dash, either alone or in connection with the comma, is used to point out that part of a sentence on which special stress is to be placed.
I saw unpruned fruit trees, broken fences, and farm implements, rusting in the rain—all evidences of wasted time.
4. The dash is sometimes used with the colon before long quotations, before an enumeration of things, or before a formally introduced statement.
+12. Rules for the Use of Quotation Marks.+—1. Quotation marks are used to inclose direct quotations.
"In all the great affairs of life one must run some risk," she remarked.
2. A quotation within a quotation is usually indicated by single quotation marks.
"Can you tell me where I can find 'Rienzi's Address'?" asked a young lady of a clerk in Brooklyn.
3. When a quotation is interrupted by parenthetical expressions, the different parts of the quotation should be inclosed in quotation marks.
"Bring forth," cried the monarch, "the vessels of gold."
4. When the quotation consists of several paragraphs, the quotation marks are placed at the beginning of each paragraph and at the close of the last one.
+13. Rule for the Use of the Apostrophe.+—The apostrophe is used to denote the possessive case, to indicate the omission of letters, and to form the plural of signs, figures, and letters.
In the teacher's copy book you will find several fancy A's and 3's which can't be distinguished from engravings.
II. REVIEW OF GRAMMAR
THE SENTENCE
+14. English grammar+ is the study of the forms of English words and their relationship to one another as they appear in sentences. A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought.
+15. Elements of a Sentence.+—The elements of a sentence, as regards the office that they perform, are the subject and the predicate. The subject is that about which something is asserted, and the predicate is that which asserts something about the subject.
Some predicates may consist of a single word or word-group, able in itself to complete a sentence: [The thrush sings. The thrush has been singing]. Some require a following word or words: [William struck John (object complement, or object). Edward became king (attribute complement). The people made Edward king (objective complement)].
The necessary parts of a sentence are: some name for the object of thought (to which the general term substantive may be given); some word or group of words to make assertion concerning the substantive (general term, assertive); and, in case of an incomplete assertive, one of the above given completions of its meaning (object complement, attribute complement, objective complement).
In addition to these necessary elements of the sentence, words or groups of words may be added to make the meaning of any one of the elements more exact. Such additions are known as modifiers. The word-groups which are used as modifiers are the phrase and the clause.
[The thrush, sings in the pine woods (phrase). The wayfarer who hears the thrush is indeed fortunate (clause).]
Both the subject and the predicate may be unmodified:
[Bees buzz]; both may be modified: [The honey bees buzz in the clover]; one may be modified and the other unmodified: [Bees buzz in the clover].
The unmodified subject may be called the simple subject, or, merely, the subject. If modified, it becomes the complete subject.
The assertive element, together with the attribute complement, if one is present, may be called the simple predicate. If modified, it becomes the complete predicate.
Some grammarians call the assertive element, alone, the simple predicate; modified or completed, the complete predicate.
+16. Classification of Sentences as to Purpose.+—Sentences are classified according to purpose into three classes: declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentences.
A declarative sentence is one that makes a statement or declares something: [Columbus crossed the Atlantic].
An interrogative sentence is one that asks a question: [Who wrote Mother Goose?].
An imperative sentence is one that expresses a command or entreaty:
["Fling away ambition"].
Each kind of sentence may be of an exclamatory nature, and then the sentence is said to be an exclamatory sentence: [How happy all the children are! (exclamatory declarative). "Who so base as be a slave?" (exclamatory interrogative). "Heap high the farmer's wintry hoard!" (exclamatory imperative)].
Notice that the exclamation point follows the declarative and imperative forms, but the interrogative form is followed by the question mark.
WORDS AND THEIR OFFICES
+17. The Individual Elements+ of which every sentence is composed are words. Every word is the sign of some idea. Each of the words horse, he, blue, speaks, merrily, at, and because, has a certain naming value, more or less definite, for the mind of the reader. Of these, horse, blue, he, merrily, have a fairly vivid descriptive power. In the case of at and because, the main office is, evidently, to express a relation between other ideas: ["I am at my post"], ["I go because I must"]. The word speaks is less clearly a relational word; at first thought it would seem to have only the office of picturing an activity. That it also fills the office of a connective will be evident if we compare the following sentences: He speaks in public. He is a public speaker. It is evident that speaks contains in itself the naming value represented in the word speaker, but also has the connecting office fulfilled in the second sentence by is.
All words have, therefore, a naming office, and some have in addition a connecting or relational office.
PARTS OF SPEECH
+18. Parts of Speech.+—When we examine the different words in sentences we find that, in spite of these fundamentally similar qualities, the words are serving different purposes. This difference in purpose or use serves as the basis for dividing words into eight classes, called Parts of Speech. Use alone determines to which class a word in any given sentence shall belong. Not only are single words so classified, but any part of speech may be represented by a group of words. Such a group is either a phrase or a clause.
A phrase is a group of words, containing neither subject nor predicate, that is used as a single part of speech.
A clause is a group of words, containing both subject and predicate, that is used as part of a sentence. If used as a single part of speech, it is called a subordinate, or dependent, clause. Some grammarians use the word clause for a subordinate statement only.
+19. Classification.+—The eight parts of speech may be classified as follows:—
I. Substantives: nouns, pronouns.
II. Assertives: verbs.
III. Modifiers: adjectives, adverbs.
IV. Connectives: prepositions, conjunctions.
V. Interjections.
+20. Definitions.+—The parts of speech may be defined as follows:—
(1) A noun is a word used as a name.
(2) A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun, designating a person, place, or thing without naming it.
(3) An adjective is a word that modifies a substantive.
(4) A verb is a word that asserts something—action, state, or being—- concerning a substantive.
(5) An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb.
(6) A preposition is a word that shows the relation of the substantive that follows it to some other word or words in the sentence.
(7) A conjunction is a word that connects words or groups of words used in the same way.
(8) An interjection is a cry expressing emotion, but not forming part of the sentence.
NOUNS
+21. Classes of Nouns.+—Nouns are divided into two general classes: proper nouns [Esther] and common nouns [girl].
Common nouns include abstract nouns [happiness] and collective nouns [army].
Any word mentioned merely as a word is a noun: [And is a conjunction].
+22. Inflection.+—A change in the form of a word to denote a change in its meaning is termed inflection.
+23. Number.+—The most common inflection of the noun is that which shows us whether the name denotes one or more than one. The power of the noun to denote one or more than one is termed number. A noun that denotes but one object is singular in number. A noun that denotes more than one object is plural in number.
The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by adding s and es to the singular [bank, banks; box, boxes].
Other points to be noted concerning the plural of nouns are as follows:—
1. The irregular plural in en [child, children].
2. Formation of the plural by internal change [goose, geese].
3. Fourteen nouns ending in f or fe change the f or fe into yes [leaf, leaves].
4. Nouns ending in y, preceded by a consonant, change the y to i and add es [enemy, enemies].
5. Letters, figures, signs, etc., form their plural by adding 's:[You have used too many i's].
6. Nouns taken from other languages usually form their plurals according to the laws of those languages [phenomenon, phenomena].
7. A few nouns in our language do not change their form to denote number.
(a) Some nouns have the same form, for both the singular and the
plural [sheep, deer].
(b) Some nouns are used only in the plural [scissors, thanks].
(c) Some nouns have no plurals [pride, flesh].
(d) Some nouns, plural in form, have a singular meaning [measles,
news, politics].
8. Compound nouns usually form their plural by pluralizing the noun part of the compound [sister-in-law, sisters-in-law]. If the words of the compound are both nouns, and are of equal importance, both are given a plural ending [manservant, menservants]. When the compound is thought of as a whole, the last part only is made plural [spoonful, spoonfuls].
9. Proper names usually form their plurals regularly. If they are preceded by titles, they form their plurals either by pluralizing the title or by pluralizing the name [The Misses Hunter or the Miss Hunters. The Messrs. Keene or the two Mr. Keenes. The Masters Burke. The Mrs. Harrisons.]
10. A few nouns have two plurals differing in meaning or use [cloth, cloths, clothes; penny, pennies, pence].
+24. Case.+—Case is the relation that a noun or pronoun bears to some other word in the sentence.
Inflection of nouns or pronouns for the purpose of denoting case is termed declension. There are three cases in the English language: the nominative, the possessive, and the objective; but nouns show only two forms for each number, as the nominative and objective cases have the same form.
+25. Formation of the Possessive.+—Nouns in the singular, and those in the plural not already ending in s, form the possessive regularly by adding 's to the nominative [finger, finger's; geese, geese's].
In case the plural already ends in s, the possessive case adds only the apostrophe [girls'].
A few singular nouns add only the apostrophe, when the addition of the 's would make an unpleasant sound [Moses'].
Compound nouns form the possessive case by adding 's to the last word.
This is also the rule when two names denoting joint ownership are used:
[Bradbury and Emery's Algebra].
Notice that in the following expression the 's is affixed to the second noun only: [My sister Martha's book].
Names of inanimate objects usually substitute prepositional phrases to denote possession: [The hardness of the rock, not The rock's hardness].
+26. Gender.+—Gender is the power of nouns and pronouns to denote sex. Nouns or pronouns denoting males are of the masculine gender; those denoting females are of the feminine gender; and those denoting things without animal life are of the neuter gender.
+27. Person.+—Person is the power of one class of pronouns to show whether the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of is designated. According to the person denoted, the pronoun is said to be in the first, second, or third person. Nouns and many pronouns are not inflected for person, but most grammarians attribute person to them because the context of the sentence in which they are used shows what persons they represent.
+28. Constructions of Nouns.+—The following are the usual constructions of nouns:—
(a) The possessive case of the noun denotes possession.
(b) Nouns in the nominative case are used as follows:—
1. As the subject of a verb: [The western sky is all aflame]
2. As an attribute complement: [Autumn is the most gorgeous season of the year].
3. In an exclamation: [Alas, poor soul, it could not be!].
4. In direct address: [O hush thee, my baby!].
5. Absolutely: [The rain being over, the grass twinkled in the sunshine].
6. As a noun in apposition with a nominative: [Columbus; a native of Genoa, discovered America].
(c) Nouns in the objective case are used as follows:—
1. As the direct object of a verb, termed either the direct object or the object complement: [I saw a host of golden daffodils].
2. As the objective complement: [They crowned him king].
3. As the indirect object of a verb: [We gave Ethel a ring].
4. As the object of a preposition: [John Smith explored the coast of New
England].
5. As the subject of an infinitive: [He commanded the man (him)to go
without delay].
6. As the attribute of an expressed subject of the infinitive to be: [I
thought it to be John (him)].
7. As an adverbial noun: [He came last week].
8. As a noun in apposition with an object: [Stanley found Livingstone, the great explorer].
+29. Equivalents for Nouns.+
1. Pronoun: [John gave his father a book for Christmas].
2. Adjective: [The good alone are truly great].
3. Adverb: [I do not understand the whys and wherefores of the process].
4. A gerund, or infinitive in ing: [Seeing is believing].
5. An infinitive or infinitive phrase: [With him, to think is to act].
6. Clause: [It is hard for me to believe that she took the money]. Noun clauses may be used as subject, object, attribute complement, and appositive.
7. A prepositional phrase: [Over the fence is out].
PRONOUNS
+30. Antecedent.+—The most common equivalent for a noun is the pronoun. The substantive for which the pronoun is an equivalent is called the antecedent, and with this antecedent the pronoun must agree in person, number, and gender, but not necessarily in case.
+31. Classes of Pronouns.+—Pronouns are commonly divided into five classes, and sometimes a sixth class is added: (1) personal pronouns, (2) relative pronouns, (3) interrogative pronouns, (4) demonstrative pronouns, (5) adjective pronouns,(6) indefinite pronouns (not always added).
+32. Personal Pronouns.+—Personal pronouns are so called because they show by their form whether they refer to the first, the second, or the third person. There are five personal pronouns in common use: I, you, he, she, and it.
+33. Constructions of Personal Pronouns.+—The personal pronouns are used in the same ways in which nouns are used. Besides the regular uses that the personal pronoun has, there are some special uses that should be understood.
1. The word it is often used in an indefinite way at the beginning of a sentence: [It snows]. When so used, it has no antecedent, and we say it is used impersonally.
2. The pronoun it is often used as the grammatical subject of a sentence in which the logical subject is found after the predicate verb: [It is impossible for us to go]. When so used the pronoun it is called an expletive. There is used in the same way.
+34. Cautions and Suggestions.+
1. Be careful not to use the apostrophe in the possessive forms its, yours, ours, and theirs.
2. Be careful to use the nominative form of a pronoun used as an attribute complement: [It is I; it is they].
3. Be sure that the pronoun agrees in number with its antecedent. One of the most common violations of this rule is in using their in such sentences as the following:—Every boy and girl must arrange his desk. Who has lost his book? The use of every and the form has obliges us to make the possessive pronouns singular.
His may be regarded as applying to females as well as males, where it is convenient not to use the expression his or her.
4. The so-called subject of an infinitive is always in the objective case: [I asked him to go].
5. The attribute complement will agree in case with the subject of the verb. Hence the attribute complement of an infinitive is in the objective case: [I knew it (obj.) to be him]; but the attribute complement of the subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case: [I knew it (nom.) was he].
6. Words should be so arranged in a sentence that there will be no doubt in the mind concerning the antecedent of the pronoun.
7. Do not use the personal pronoun form them for the adjective those: [Those books are mine].
+35. Compound Personal Pronouns.+—To the personal pronouns my, our, your, him, her, it, and them, the syllables self (singular) and selves (plural) may be added, thus forming what are termed compound personal pronouns. These pronouns have only two uses:—
1. They are used for emphasis: [He himself is an authority on the subject].
2. They are also used reflexively: [The boy injured himself].
+36. The Relative or Conjunctive Pronouns.+—The pronouns who, which, what (= that which), that, and as (after such) are more than equivalents for nouns, inasmuch as they serve as connectives. They are often named relative pronouns because they relate to some antecedent either expressed or implied; they are equally well named conjunctive pronouns because they are used as connectives. They introduce subordinate clauses only; these clauses are called relative clauses, and since they modify substantives, are also called adjective clauses.
+37. Uses of Relative Pronouns.+—Who is used to represent persons, and objects or ideas personified; which is used to represent things; that and as are used to represent both persons and things.
When a clause is used for the purpose of pointing out some particular person, object, or idea, it is usually introduced by that; but when the clause supplies an additional thought, who or which is more frequently used. The former is called a restrictive clause, and the latter, a non-restrictive clause.
[The boy that broke his leg has fully recovered (restrictive).] Note the omission of the comma before that. [My eldest brother, who is now in England, will return by June (non-restrictive).] Note the inclosure of the clause in commas. See Appendix 5, rule 10.
In the first sentence it is evident that the intent of the writer is to separate, in thought, the boy that broke his leg from all other boys. Although the clause does indeed describe the boy's condition, it does so for the purpose of limiting or restricting thought to one especial boy among many. In the second sentence the especial person meant is indicated by the word eldest. The clause, who is now in England, is put in for the sake of giving an additional bit of information.
+38. Constructions of Relative Pronouns.+—Relative pronouns may be used as subject, object, object of a preposition, subject of an infinitive, and possessive modifier.
The relative pronoun is regarded as agreeing in person with its antecedent. Its verb, therefore, takes the person of the antecedent: [I, who am your friend, will assist you].
The case of the relative is determined by its construction in the clause in which it is found: [He whom the president appointed was fitted for the position].
+39. Compound Relative Pronouns.+—The compound relative pronouns are formed by adding ever and soever to the relative pronouns who, which, and what. These have the constructions of the simple relatives, and the same rules hold about person and case: [Give it to whoever wishes it. Give it to whomever you see].
+40. Interrogative Pronouns.+—The pronouns who, which, and what are used to ask questions, and when so used, are called interrogative pronouns. Who refers to persons; what, to things; and which, to persons or things. Like the relatives who has three case forms; which and what are uninflected.
The implied question in the sentence, I know whom you saw, is, Whom did you see? The introductory whom is an interrogative pronoun, and the clause itself is called an indirect question.
The words which, what, and whose may also be used as modifiers of substantives, and when so used they are called interrogative adjectives: ["What manner of man is this?" Whose child is this? Which book did you choose?].
+41. Demonstrative Pronouns.+—This and that, with their plurals these and those, are called demonstrative pronouns, because they point out individual persons or things.
+42. Indefinite Pronouns.+—Some pronouns, as each, either, some, any, many, such, etc., are indefinite in character. Many indefinites may be used either as pronouns or adjectives. Of the indefinites only two, one and other, are inflected.
SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL
NOM. AND OBJ. one ones other others
POSS. one's ones' other's others'
+43. Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives.+—Many words, as has been noted already, are either pronouns or adjectives according to the office that they perform. If the noun is expressed, the word in question is called a pronominal adjective; but if the noun is omitted so that the word in question takes its place, it is called an adjective pronoun. [That house is white (adjective). That is the same house (pronoun).]
ADJECTIVES
+44. Classes of Adjectives.+—There are two general classes of adjectives: the descriptive [blue, high, etc.], so called because they describe, and the limiting or definitive adjectives [yonder, three, that, etc.], so called because they limit or define. It is, of course, true that any adjective which describes a noun limits its meaning; but the adjective is named from its descriptive power, not from its limiting power. A very large per cent of all adjectives belong to the first class,—descriptive adjectives. Proper adjectives and participial adjectives form a small part of this large class: [European countries. A running brook].
+45. Limiting or Definitive Adjectives.+—The limiting adjectives include the various classes of pronominal adjectives (all of which have been mentioned under pronouns), the articles (a, an, and the), and adjectives denoting place and number.
+46. Comparison of Adjectives.+—With the exception of the words this and that, adjectives are not inflected for number, and none are inflected for case. Many of them, however, change their form to express a difference in degree. This change of form is called comparison. There are three degrees of comparison: the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. Adjectives are regularly compared by adding the syllables er and est to the positive to form the comparative and superlative degrees. In some cases, especially in the case of adjectives of more than one syllable, the adverbs more and most are placed before the positive degree in order to form the other two degrees [long, longer, longest; beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful].
+47. Irregular Comparison of Adjectives.+—A few adjectives are compared irregularly. These adjectives are in common use and we should be familiar with the correct forms.
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
bad } evil } worse worst ill }
far farther farthest
good } better best well }
fore former { foremost
{ first
late { later { latest { latter { last
little less least
many } more most much }
near nearer { nearest
{ next
old { older { oldest
{ elder { eldest
The following words are used as adverbs or prepositions in the positive degree, and as adjectives in the other two degrees:—
(forth) further furthest
(in) inner { innermost { inmost
(out) { outer { outermost
{ utter { utmost
{ uttermost
(up) upper { upmost { uppermost
+48. Cautions concerning the Use of Adjectives.+
1. When two or more adjectives modify the same noun, the article is placed only before the first, unless emphasis is desired: [He is an industrious, faithful pupil].
2. If the adjectives refer to different things, the article should be repeated before each adjective: [She has a white and a blue dress].
3. When two or more nouns are in apposition, the article is placed only before the first: [I received a telegram from Mr. Richards, the broker and real estate agent].
4. This, these, that, and those must agree in number with the noun they modify: [This kind of flowers; those sorts of seeds].
5. When but two things are compared, the comparative degree is used: [This is the more complete of the two].
6. When than is used after a comparative, whatever is compared should be excluded from the class with which it is compared: [I like this house better than any other house; not, I like this house better than any house].
7. Do not use a after kind of, sort of, etc.: [What kind of man is he? (not, What kind of a man)]. One man does not constitute a class consisting of many kinds.
+49. Constructions of Adjectives.+—Adjectives that merely describe or limit are said to be attributive in construction. When the adjective limits or describes, and, at the same time, adds to the predicate, it is called a predicate adjective.Predicate adjectives may be used either as attribute or objective complements: [The sea is rough to-day (attribute complement), He painted the boat green (objective complement)].
+50. Equivalents for Adjectives.+—The following are used as equivalents for the typical adjective:—
1. A noun used in apposition: [Barrie's story of his mother, "Margaret Ogilvy," is very beautiful].
2. A noun used as an adjective: [A campaign song].
3. A prepositional phrase: [His little, nameless, unremember'd acts of kindness and of love].
4. Participles or participial phrases: [We saw a brook running between the alders. Soldiers hired to serve a foreign country are called mercenaries].
5. Relative clauses: [This is the house that Jack built].
6. An adverb (sometimes called the locative adjective): [The book here is the one I want].
VERBS
+51. Uses of Verbs.+—A verb is the word or word-group that makes an assertion or statement, and it is therefore the most important part of the whole sentence. It has been already shown that such a verb as speaks serves the double purpose of suggesting an activity and showing relation. The most purely relational verb is the verb to be, which is called the copula or linking verb, for the very reason that it joins predicate words to the subject: [The lake is beautiful]. To be, however, is not always a pure copula. In such a sentence as, "He that cometh to God must believe that He is," the word is means exists.Verbs that are like the copula, such as, appear, become, seem, etc., are called copulative verbs. Verbs that not only are relational but have descriptive power, such as sings, plays, runs, etc., are called attributive verbs. They attribute some quality or characteristic to the subject.
+52. Classes of Verbs.+—According to their uses in a sentence verbs are divided into two classes: transitive and intransitive.
A transitive verb is one that takes a following substantive, expressed or implied, called the object, to designate the receiver or the product of the action: [They seized the city. They built a city]. The transitive verb may sometimes be used absolutely:[The horse eats]. Here the object is implied.
An intransitive verb is one that does not take an object to complete its meaning; or, in other words, an intransitive verb is one that denotes an action, state, or feeling that involves the subject only: [He ran away. They were standing at the water's edge].
A few verbs in our language are always transitive, and a few others are always intransitive. The verbs lie and lay, rise and raise, sit and set, are so frequently misused that attention is here called to them. The verbs lie, rise, and sit (usually) are intransitive in meaning, while the verbs lay, raise, and set are transitive. The word sit may sometimes take a reflexive object: [They sat themselves down to rest].
The majority of verbs in our language are either transitive or intransitive, according to the sense in which they are used.
[The fire burns merrily (intransitive).
The fire burned the building (transitive).
The bird flew swiftly (intransitive).
The boy flew his kite (transitive).]
Some intransitive verbs take what is known as a cognate object: [He died a noble death.] Here the object repeats the meaning of the verb.
+53. Complete and Incomplete Verbs.+—Some intransitive verbs make a complete assertion or statement without the aid of any other words. Such verbs are said to be of complete predication: [The snow melts].
All transitive verbs and some intransitive verbs require one or more words to complete the meaning of the predicate. Such verbs are said to be incomplete. Whatever is added to complete the meaning of the predicate is termed a complement. The complement of a transitive verb is called the object complement, or simply the object: [She found the book]. Some transitive verbs, from the nature of their meaning, take also an indirect object: [I gave her the book]. When a word belonging to the subject is added to an intransitive verb in order to complete the predicate, it is termed an attribute complement. This complement may be either a noun or an adjective: [He is our treasurer (noun). This rose is fragrant (adjective)]. Among the incomplete intransitive verbs the most conspicuous are the copula and the copulative verbs.
+54. Auxiliary Verbs.+—English verbs have so few changes of form to express differences in meaning that it is often necessary to use the so-called auxiliary verbs. The most common are: do, be, have, may, must, might, can, shall, will, should, would, could, and ought. Some of these may be used as principal verbs. A few notes and cautions are added.
Can is used to denote the ability of the subject.
May is used to denote permission, possibility, purpose, or desire. Thus the request for permission should be, "May I?" not "Can I?"
Must indicates necessity.
Ought expresses obligation.
Had should never be used with ought. To express a moral obligation in past time, combine ought with the perfect infinitive: [I ought to have done it].
Should sometimes expresses duty: [You should not go].
Would sometimes denotes a custom: [He would sit there for hours]. Sometimes it expresses a wish: [Would he were here!]. For other uses of should and would, see Appendix 60.
+55. Principal Parts.+—The main forms of the verb—so important as to be called the principal parts because the other parts are formed from them— are the root infinitive, the preterite (past) indicative, and the past participle [move, moved, moved; sing, sang, sung; be, was, been]. The present participle is sometimes given with the principal parts.
+56. Inflection.+—As is evident from the preceding paragraph, verbs have certain changes of form to indicate change of meaning. Such a change or inflection, in the case of the noun, is called declension; in the case of the verb it is called conjugation. Nouns are declined; verbs are conjugated.
+57. Person and Number.+—In Latin, or any other highly inflected language, there are many terminations to indicate differences in person and number, but in English there is but one in common use, s in the third person singular: [He runs], St or est is used after thou in the second person singular: [Thou lovest].
+58. Agreement.+—Verbs must agree with their subjects in person and number. The following suggestions concerning agreement may be helpful:—
1. A compound subject that expresses a single idea takes a singular verb: [Bread and milk is wholesome food].
2. When the members of a compound subject, connected by neither … nor, differ as regards person and number, the verb should agree with the nearer of the two: [Neither they nor I am to blame].
3. When the subject consists of singular nouns or pronouns connected by or, either … or, neither … nor, the verb is singular: [Either this book or that is mine].
4. Words joined to the subject by with, together with, as well as, etc., do not affect the number of the verb. The same is true of any modifier of the subject: [John, as well as the girls, is playing house. One of my books is lying on the table. Neither of us is to blame].
5. When the article the precedes the word number, used as a subject, the verb should be in the singular; otherwise the verb is plural: [The number of pupils in our schools is on the increase. A number of children have been playing in the sand pile].
6. The pronoun you always takes a plural verb, even if its meaning is singular: [You were here yesterday].
7. A collective noun takes a singular or plural verb, according as the collection is thought of as a whole or as composed of individuals.
+59. Tense.+—The power of the verb to show differences of time is called tense. Tense shows also the completeness or incompleteness of an act or condition at the time of speaking. There are three primary tenses: present, preterite (past), and future; and three secondary tenses for completed action:present perfect, past perfect (pluperfect), and future perfect.
English has only two simple tenses, the present and the preterite: I love, I loved. All other tenses are formed by the use of the auxiliary verbs. By combining the present and past tenses of will, shall, have, be, or do with those parts of the verb known as infinitives and participles, the various tenses of the complete conjugation of the verb are built up. The formation of the preterite tense, and the consequent division of verbs into strong and weak, will be discussed later.
+60. The Future Tense.+—The future tense is formed by combining shall or will with the root infinitive, without to.
The correct form of the future tense in assertions is here given:—
SINGULAR PLURAL
1. I shall fall 1. We shall fall 2. Thou wilt fall 2. You will fall 3. He will fall 3. They will fall
Will, in the first person, denotes not simple futurity, but determination: [I will (= am determined to) go].
Shall, in the second and third persons, is not simply the sign of the future tense in declarative sentences. It is used to denote the determination of the speaker with reference to others.
Notice:—
1. In clauses introduced by that, expressed or understood, if the noun clause and the principal clause have different subjects, the same auxiliary is used that would be used were the subordinate clause used independently: [I fear we shall be late. My friend is determined that her son shall not be left alone].
2. In all other subordinate clauses, shall, for all persons, denotes simple futurity; will, an expression of willingness or determination: [He thinks that he shall be there. He promises that he will be there].