Diamonds

CHAPTER VII

BOART, CARBONADO, AND GRAPHITE

The black inclusions in some transparent diamonds consist of graphite. On crushing a clear diamond showing such spots and heating in oxygen to a temperature well below the point at which diamond begins to burn, Moissan found that the grey tint of the powder disappeared, no black spots being seen under the microscope. There also occur what may be considered intermediate forms between the well-crystallised diamond and graphite. These are “boart” and “carbonado.” Boart is an imperfectly crystallised diamond, having no clear portions, and therefore useless for gems. Shot boart is frequently found in spherical globules, and may be of all colours. Ordinary boart is so hard that it is used in rock-drilling, and when crushed it is employed for cutting and polishing other stones. Carbonado is the Brazilian term for a still less perfectly crystallised form of carbon. It is equally hard, and occurs in porous masses and in massive black pebbles, sometimes weighing two or more ounces.

The ash left after burning a diamond invariably contains iron as its chief constituent; and the most common colours of diamonds, when not perfectly pellucid, show various shades of brown and yellow, from the palest “off colour” to almost black. These variations give support to the theory advanced by Moissan that the diamond has separated from molten iron—a theory of which I shall say more presently—and also explain how it happens that stones from different mines, and even from different parts of the same mine, differ from each other. Further confirmation is given by the fact that the country round Kimberley is remarkable for its ferruginous character, and iron-saturated soil is popularly regarded as one of the indications of the near presence of diamonds.

Graphite

Intermediate between soft carbon and diamond come the graphites. The name graphite is given to a variety of carbon, generally crystalline, which in an oxidising mixture of chlorate of potassium and nitric acid forms graphitic oxide. This varies in colour from green to brown or yellow, or it is almost without colour, according to the completeness of the reaction. Graphites are of varying densities, from 2·0 to 3·0, and generally of crystalline aspect. Graphite and diamond pass insensibly into one another. Hard graphite and soft diamond are near the same specific gravity. The difference appears to be one of pressure at the time of formation.

Some forms of graphite exhibit the remarkable property by which it is possible to ascertain approximately the temperature at which they were formed, or to which they have subsequently been exposed. Sprouting graphite is a form, frequently met with in nature, which on moderate heating swells up to a bulky, very light mass of amorphous carbon. Moissan has found it in blue ground from Kimberley; my own results verify his. When obtained by simple elevation of temperature in the arc or the electric furnace graphites do not sprout; but when they are formed by dissolving carbon in a metal at a high temperature and then allowing the graphite to separate out on cooling, the sprouting variety appears. The phenomenon of sprouting is easily shown. If a few grains are placed in a test-tube and heated to about 170° C., the grains increase enormously in bulk and fill the tube with a light form of amorphous carbon.

The resistance of a graphite to oxidising agents is greater the higher the temperature to which it has previously been exposed. Graphites which are easily attacked by a mixture of fuming nitric acid and potassium chlorate are rendered more resistant by strong heat in the electric furnace.

I have already signified that there are various degrees of refractoriness to chemical reagents among the different forms of graphite. Some dissolve in strong nitric acid; other forms of graphite require a mixture of highly concentrated nitric acid and potassium chlorate to attack them, and even with this intensely powerful agent some graphites resist longer than others. M. Moissan has shown that the power of resistance to nitric acid and potassium chlorate is in proportion to the temperature at which the graphite was formed, and with tolerable certainty we can estimate this temperature by the resistance of the specimen of graphite to this reagent.

Crystallisation

The diamond belongs to the isometric system of crystallography; the prevailing form is octahedral. It frequently occurs with curved faces and edges. Twin crystals (macles) are not uncommon. Diamond crystals are generally perfect on all sides. They seldom show irregular sides or faces by which they were attached to a support, as do artificial crystals of chemical salts; another proof that the diamond must have crystallised from a dense liquid.

The accompanying illustration (Fig. 14) shows some of the various crystalline forms of native diamonds.

No. 2. Diamond in the form of a hexakis-octahedron and octahedron. From Sudafrika.

No. 3. Diamond in the form of octahedron with intersections.

No. 4. Diamond from Brazil.

No. 5. Diamond from Kimberley.

No. 6. Diamond from Brazil.

No, 7. A macle or twin crystal, showing its formation from an octahedron with curved edges.

Some crystals of diamonds have their surfaces beautifully marked with equilateral triangles, interlaced and of varying sizes (Fig. 15). Under the microscope these markings appear as hollow depressions sharply cut out of the surrounding surface, and these depressions were supposed by Gustav Rose to indicate the probability that the diamonds had at some previous time been exposed to incipient combustion. Rose pointed out that similar triangular striations appeared on the surfaces of diamonds burnt before the blowpipe. This experiment I have repeated on a clear diamond, and I have satisfied myself that during combustion before the blowpipe, in the field of a microscope, the surface is etched with triangular markings different in character from those naturally on crystals (Fig. 16). The artificial striæ are very irregular, much smaller, and massed closer together, looking as if the diamond during combustion flaked away in triangular chips, while the markings natural to crystals appear as if produced by the crystallising force as they were being built up. Many crystals of chemical compounds appear striated from both these causes. Geometrical markings can be produced by eroding the surface of a crystal of alum with water, and they also occur naturally during crystallisation.

CHAPTER VIII

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE DIAMOND

I need scarcely say the diamond is almost pure carbon, and it is the hardest substance in nature.

When heated in air or oxygen to a temperature varying from 760° to 875° C., according to its hardness, the diamond burns with production of carbonic acid. It leaves an extremely light ash, sometimes retaining the shape of the crystal, consisting of iron, lime, magnesia, silica, and titanium. In boart and carbonado the amount of ash sometimes rises to 4 per cent, but in clear crystallised diamonds it is seldom higher than 0·05 per cent. By far the largest constituent of the ash is iron.

The following table shows the temperatures of combustion in oxygen of different kinds of carbon:

Hardness

Diamonds vary considerably in hardness, and even different parts of the same crystal differ in their resistance to cutting and grinding.

Beautifully white diamonds have been found at Inverel, New South Wales, and from the rich yield of the mine and the white colour of the stones great things were expected. In the first parcel which came to England the stones were found to be so much harder than South African diamonds that it was at first feared they would be useless except for rock-boring purposes. The difficulty of cutting them disappeared with improved appliances, and they now are highly prized.

The famous Koh-i-noor, when being cut into its present form, showed a notable variation in hardness. In cutting one of the facets near a yellow flaw, the crystal became harder and harder the further it was cut, until, after working the mill for six hours at the usual speed of 2400 revolutions a minute, little impression was made. The speed was increased to more than 3000, when the work slowly proceeded. Other portions of the stone were found to be comparatively soft, and became harder as the outside was cut away.

The intense hardness of the diamond can be illustrated by the following experiment. On the flattened apex of a conical block of steel place a diamond, and upon it bring down a second cone of steel. On forcing together the two steel cones by hydraulic pressure the stone is squeezed into the steel blocks without injuring it in the slightest degree.

In an experiment I made at Kimberley the pressure gauge showed 60 atmospheres, and the piston being 3·2 inches diameter, the absolute pressure was 3·16 tons, equivalent on a diamond of 12 square mm. surface to 170 tons per square inch of diamond.

The use of diamond in glass-cutting I need not dwell on. So hard is diamond in comparison to glass, that a suitable splinter of diamond will plane curls off a glass plate as a carpenter’s tool will plane shavings off a deal board. The illustration (Fig. 17) shows a few diamond-cut glass shavings.

Density or Specific Gravity

The specific gravity of the diamond varies ordinarily from 3·514 to 3·518. For comparison, I give in tabular form the specific gravities of the different varieties of carbon and of the minerals found on the sorting tables:

There is a substance, the double nitrate of silver and thallium, which, while solid at ordinary temperatures, liquefies at 75° C. and then has a specific gravity of 4·5. Admixture with water lowers the density to any desired point.

If a glass cell is taken containing this liquid diluted to a density of about 3·6, and in it is thrown pieces of the above-named minerals, all those whose density is lower than 3·6 will rise to the surface, while the denser minerals will sink. If now a little water is carefully added with constantly stirring until the density of the liquid is reduced to that of the diamond, the heterogeneous collection sorts itself into three parts. The graphite, quartz, beryl, mica, and hornblende rise to the surface; the garnet, corundum, zircons, etc., sink to the bottom, while the diamonds float in the middle of the liquid. With a platinum landing-net I can skim off the swimmers and put them into one dish; with the same net I can fish out the diamonds and put them in a second dish, while by raising a sieve at the bottom I can remove the heavy minerals and put them into a third. The accurate separation of diamonds from the heterogeneous mixture can be effected in less time than is taken to describe the experiment.

The table shows that diamonds vary somewhat in density among themselves, between narrow limits. Occasionally, however, diamonds overpass these figures. Here is an illustration. In a test-tube of the same dense liquid are three selected diamonds. One rises to the top, another floats uncertain where to settle, rising and falling as the temperature of the sorting liquid is raised or lowered, whilst the third sinks to the bottom. Allowing the liquid to cool a degree or two slightly increases the density and sends all three to the surface.

Phosphorescence of Diamond

After exposure for some time to the sun many diamonds glow in a dark room. Some diamonds are fluorescent, appearing milky in sunlight. In a vacuum, exposed to a high-tension current of electricity, diamonds phosphoresce of different colours, most South African diamonds shining with a bluish light. Diamonds from other localities emit bright blue, apricot, pale blue, red, yellowish green, orange, and pale green light. The most phosphorescent diamonds are those which are fluorescent in the sun. One beautiful green diamond in the writer’s collection, when phosphorescing in a good vacuum, gives almost as much light as a candle, and you can easily read by its rays. But the time has hardly come when diamonds can be used as domestic illuminants! The emitted light is pale green, tending to white, and in its spectrum, when strong, can be seen bright lines, one at about λ 5370 in the green, one at λ 5130 in the greenish blue, and one at λ 5030 in the blue. A beautiful collection of diamond crystals belonging to Professor Maskelyne phosphoresces with nearly all the colours of the rainbow, the different faces glowing with different shades of colour. Diamonds which phosphoresce red generally show the yellow sodium line on a continuous spectrum. In one Brazilian diamond phosphorescing a reddish-yellow colour I detected in its spectrum the citron line characteristic of yttrium.

The rays which make the diamond phosphoresce are high in the ultra-violet. To illustrate this phosphorescence under the influence of the ultra-violet rays, arrange a powerful source of these rays, and in front expose a design made up of certain minerals, willemite, franklinite, calcite, etc.—phosphorescing of different colours. Their brilliant glow ceases entirely when a thin piece of glass is interposed between them and the ultra-violet lamp.

I now draw attention to a strange property of the diamond, which at first sight might seem to discount the great permanence and unalterability of this stone. It has been ascertained that the cause of phosphorescence is in some way connected with the hammering of the electrons, violently driven from the negative pole on to the surface of the body under examination, and so great is the energy of the bombardment, that impinging on a piece of platinum or even iridium, the metal will actually melt. When the diamond is thus bombarded in a radiant matter tube the result is startling. It not only phosphoresces, but becomes discoloured, and in course of time becomes black on the surface. Some diamonds blacken in the course of a few minutes, while others require an hour or more to discolour. This blackening is only superficial, and although no ordinary means of cleaning will remove the discolouration, it goes at once when the stone is polished with diamond powder. Ordinary oxidising reagents have little or no effect in restoring the colour.

Conversion of Diamond into Graphite

Although we cannot convert graphite into diamond, we can change the diamond into graphite. A clear crystal of diamond is placed between two carbon poles, and the poles with intervening diamond are brought together and an arc formed between. The temperature of the diamond rapidly rises, and when it approaches 3600° C., the vaporising point of carbon, it breaks down, swells, and changes into black and valueless graphite.

Tribo-Luminescence

A few minerals give out light when rubbed. In the year 1663 the Hon. Robert Boyle read a paper before the Royal Society, in which he described several experiments made with a diamond which markedly showed tribo-luminescence. As specimens of tribo-luminescent bodies I may instance sphalerite (sulphide of zinc), and an artificial sphalerite, which is even more responsive to friction than the native sulphide.[6]

Mrs. Kunz, wife of the well-known New York mineralogist, possesses, perhaps, the most remarkable of all phosphorescing diamonds. This prodigy diamond will phosphoresce in the dark for some minutes after being exposed to a small pocket electric light, and if rubbed on a piece of cloth a long streak of phosphorescence appears.

Absorption Spectrum of Diamond

On passing a ray of light through a diamond and examining it in a spectroscope, Walter has found in all colourless brilliants of over 1 carat in weight an absorption band at wave-length 4155 (violet). He ascribes this band to an impurity and suggests it may possibly be due to samarium. Three other fainter lines were detected in the ultra-violet by means of photography.

Refractivity

But it is not the hardness of the diamond so much as its optical qualities that make it so highly prized. It is one of the most refracting substances in nature, and it also has the highest reflecting properties. In the cutting of diamonds advantage is taken of these qualities. When cut as a brilliant the facets on the lower side are inclined so that light falls on them at an angle of 24° 13´, at which angle all the incident light is totally reflected. A well-cut brilliant should appear opaque by transmitted light except at a small spot in the middle where the table and culet are opposite. All the light falling on the front of the stone is reflected from the facets, and the light passing into the diamond is reflected from the interior surfaces and refracted into colours when it passes out into the air, giving rise to the lightnings, the effulgence, and coruscations for which the diamond is supreme above all other gems.

The following table gives the refractive indices of diamonds and other bodies:

In vain I have searched for a liquid of the same refraction as diamond. Such a liquid would be invaluable to the merchant, as on immersing a stone the clear body would absolutely disappear, leaving in all their ugliness the flaws and black specks so frequently seen even in the best stones.

The Diamond and Polarised Light

Having no double refraction, the diamond should not act on polarised light. But as is well known, if a transparent body which does not so act is submitted to strain of an irregular character it becomes doubly refracting, and in the polariscope reveals the existence of the strain by brilliant colours arranged in a more or less defined pattern, according to the state of tension in which the crystal exists. I have examined many hundred diamond crystals under polarised light, and with few exceptions the colours show how great is the strain to which some of them are exposed. On rotating the polariser, the black cross most frequently seen revolves round a particular point in the inside of the crystal; on examining this point with a high power we sometimes see a slight flaw, more rarely a minute cavity. The cavity is filled with gas at enormous pressure, and the strain is set up in the stone by the effort of the gas to escape. I have already said that the great Cullinan diamond by this means revealed a state of considerable internal stress and strain.

So great is this strain of internal tension that it is not uncommon for a diamond to explode soon after it reaches the surface, and some have been known to burst in the pockets of the miners or when held in the warm hand. Large crystals are more liable to burst than smaller pieces. Valuable stones have been destroyed in this way, and it is whispered that cunning dealers are not averse to allowing responsible clients to handle or carry in their warm pockets large crystals fresh from the mine. By way of safeguard against explosion some dealers imbed large diamonds in raw potato to ensure safe transit to England.

The anomalous action which many diamonds exert on polarised light is not such as can be induced by heat, but it can easily be conferred on diamonds by pressure, showing that the strain has not been produced by sudden cooling, but by sudden lowering of pressure.

The illustration of this peculiarity is not only difficult, but sometimes exceedingly costly—difficult because it is necessary to arrange for projecting on the screen the image of a diamond crystal between the jaws of a hydraulic press, the illuminating light having to pass through delicate optical polarising apparatus—and costly because only perfectly clear crystals can be used, and crystals of this character sometimes fly to pieces as the pressure rises. At first no colour is seen on the screen, the crystal not being birefringent. A movement of the handle of the press, however, gives the crystal a pinch, instantly responded to by the colours on the screen, showing the production of double refraction. Another movement of the handle brightens the colours, and a third may strain the crystal beyond its power of resistance, when the crystal flies to pieces.

The Diamond and Röntgen Rays

The diamond is remarkable in another respect. It is extremely transparent to the Röntgen rays, whereas highly refracting glass, used in imitation diamonds, is almost perfectly opaque to the rays. I exposed for a few seconds over a photographic plate to the X-rays the large Delhi diamond of a rose-pink colour weighing 31½ carats, a black diamond weighing 23 carats, and a glass imitation of the pink diamond (Fig. 18). On development the impression where the diamond obscured the rays was found to be strong, showing that most rays passed through, while the glass was practically opaque. By this means imitation diamonds can readily be distinguished from true gems.

Action of Radium on Diamond

The β-rays from radium having like properties to the stream of negative electrons in a radiant matter tube, it was of interest to ascertain if they would exert a like difference on diamond. The diamond glows under the influence of the β-radiations, and crushed diamond cemented to a piece of card or metal makes an excellent screen in a spinthariscope—almost as good as zinc sulphide. Some colourless crystals of diamond were imbedded in radium bromide and kept undisturbed for more than twelve months. At the end of that time they were examined. The radium had caused them to assume a bluish-green colour, and their value as “fancy stones” had been increased.

This colour is persistent and penetrates below the surface. It is unaffected by long-continued heating in strong nitric acid and potassium chlorate, and is not discharged by heating to redness.

To find out if this prolonged contact with radium had communicated to the diamond any radio-active properties, six diamonds were put on a photographic plate and kept in the dark for a few hours. All showed radio-activity by darkening the sensitive plate, some being more-active than others. Like the green tint, the radio-activity persists after drastic treatment. To me this proves that radio-activity does not merely consist in the adhesion of electrons or emanations given off by radium to the surface of an adjacent body, but the property is one involving layers below the surface, and like the alteration of tint, is probably closely connected with the intense molecular excitement the stone had experienced during its twelve months’ burial in radium bromide.

A diamond that had been coloured by radium, and had acquired strong radio-active properties, was slowly heated to dull redness in a dark room. Just before visibility a faint phosphorescence spread over the stone. On cooling and examining the diamond it was found that neither the colour nor the radio-activity had suffered appreciably.

Boiling- and Melting-point of Carbon

On the average the critical point of a substance is 1·5 times its absolute boiling-point. Therefore the critical point of carbon should be about 5800° Ab. But the absolute critical temperature divided by the critical pressure is for all the elements so far examined never less than 2·5; this being about the value Sir James Dewar finds for hydrogen. So that, accepting this, we get the maximum critical pressure as follows, viz. 2320 atmospheres:

5800° Ab. CrP   =   2.5,   or CrP   =   5800° Ab. 2.5 ,

or 2320 atmospheres.

Carbon and arsenic are the only two elements that have a melting-point above the boiling-point; and among compounds carbonic acid and fluoride of silicium are the only other bodies with similar properties. Now the melting-point of arsenic is about 1·2 times its absolute boiling-point. With carbonic acid and fluoride of silicium the melting-points are about 1·1 times their boiling-points. Applying these ratios to carbon, we find that its melting-point would be about 4400°.

Therefore, assuming the following data:

the Rankine or Van der Waals formula, calculated from the boiling-point and critical data, would be as follows:

log. P = 10·11 - 39120/T,

and this gives for a temperature of 4400° Ab. a pressure of 16·6 Ats. as the melting-point pressure. The results of the formula are given in the form of a table:

If, then, we may reason from these rough estimates, above a temperature of 5800° Ab. no amount of pressure will cause carbon vapour to assume liquid form, whilst at 4400° Ab. a pressure of above 17 atmospheres would suffice to liquefy some of it. Between these extremes the curve of vapour pressure is assumed to be logarithmic, as represented in the accompanying diagram. The constant 39120 which occurs in the logarithmic formula enables us to calculate the latent heat of evaporation. If we assume the vapour density to be normal, or the molecule in vapour as C₂, then the heat of volatilisation of 12 grms. of carbon would be 90,000 calories; or, if the vapour is a condensed molecule like C₆, then the 12 grms. would need 30,000 calories. In the latter case the evaporation of 1 grm. of carbon would require 2500 calories, whereas a substance like zinc needs only about 400 calories.

CHAPTER IX

GENESIS OF THE DIAMOND

Speculations as to the probable origin of the diamond have been greatly forwarded by patient research, and particularly by improved means of obtaining high temperatures, an advance we owe principally to the researches of the late Professor Moissan.

Until recent years carbon was considered absolutely non-volatile and infusible; but the enormous temperatures placed at the disposal of experimentalists by the introduction of electricity show that, instead of breaking rules, carbon obeys the same laws that govern other bodies. It volatilises at the ordinary pressure at a temperature of about 3600° C., and passes from the solid to the gaseous state without liquefying. It has been found that other bodies, such as arsenic, which volatilise without liquefying at the ordinary pressure, will easily liquefy if pressure is added to temperature. It naturally follows that if along with the requisite temperature sufficient pressure is applied, liquefaction of carbon will take place, when on cooling it will crystallise. But carbon at high temperatures is a most energetic chemical agent, and if it can get hold of oxygen from the atmosphere or any compound containing it, it will oxidise and fly off in the form of carbonic acid. Heat and pressure therefore are of no avail unless the carbon can be kept inert.

It has long been known that iron, when melted, dissolves carbon, and on cooling liberates it in the form of graphite. Moissan discovered that several other metals, especially silver, have similar properties; but iron is the best solvent for carbon. The quantity of carbon entering into solution increases with the temperature.

For the artificial manufacture of diamond the first necessity is to select pure iron—free from sulphur, silicon, phosphorus, etc.—and to pack it in a carbon crucible with pure charcoal from sugar. The crucible is then put into the body of the electric furnace and a powerful arc formed close above it between carbon poles, utilising a current of 700 ampères at 40 volts pressure (Fig. 20). The iron rapidly melts and saturates itself with carbon. After a few minutes’ heating to a temperature above 4000° C.—a temperature at which the iron melts like wax and volatilises in clouds—the current is stopped and the dazzling fiery crucible is plunged beneath the surface of cold water, where it is held till it sinks below a red heat. As is well known, iron increases in volume at the moment of passing from the liquid to the solid state. The sudden cooling solidifies the outer layer of iron and holds the inner molten mass in a tight grip. The expansion of the inner liquid on solidifying produces an enormous pressure, and under the stress of this pressure the dissolved carbon separates out in transparent forms—minutely microscopic, it is true—all the same veritable diamonds, with crystalline form and appearance, colour, hardness, and action on light, the same as the natural gem.

Now commences the tedious part of the process. The metallic ingot is attacked with hot nitro-hydrochloric acid until no more iron is dissolved. The bulky residue consists chiefly of graphite, together with translucent chestnut-coloured flakes of carbon, black opaque carbon of a density of from 3·0 to 3·5 and hard as diamonds—black diamonds or carbonado, in fact—and a small portion of transparent, colourless diamonds showing crystalline structure. Besides these there may be carbide of silicon and corundum, arising from impurities in the materials employed.

The residue is first heated for some hours with strong sulphuric acid at the boiling-point, with the cautious addition of powdered nitre. It is then well washed and for two days allowed to soak in strong hydrofluoric acid in cold, then in boiling acid. After this treatment the soft graphite disappears, and most, if not all, the silicon compounds have been destroyed. Hot sulphuric acid is again applied to destroy the fluorides, and the residue, well washed, is attacked with a mixture of the strongest nitric acid and powdered potassium chlorate, kept warm—but not above 60° C., to avoid explosions. This treatment must be repeated six or eight times, when all the hard graphite will gradually be dissolved and little else left but graphitic oxide, diamond, and the harder carbonado and boart. The residue is fused for an hour in fluorhydrate or fluoride of potassium, then boiled out in water and again heated in sulphuric acid. The well-washed grains which resist this energetic treatment are dried, carefully deposited on a slide, and examined under the microscope. Along with numerous pieces of black diamond are seen transparent, colourless pieces, some amorphous, others with a crystalline appearance. Fig. 21 B shows one of these crystalline fragments. Although many fragments of crystals occur, it is remarkable I have never seen a complete crystal. All appear shattered, as if on being liberated from the intense pressure under which they were formed they burst asunder. I have singular evidence of this phenomenon. A fine piece of artificial diamond, carefully mounted by me on a microscopic slide, exploded during the night and covered the slide with fragments. Moissan’s crystals of artificial diamond sometimes broke a few weeks after their preparation, and some of the diamonds which cracked weeks or even months after their preparation showed fissures covered with minute cubes. I have explained that this bursting paroxysm is not unknown at the Kimberley mines. So far, all such artificial diamonds are microscopic. The largest artificial diamond is less than one millimetre across.

These laboratory diamonds burn in the air before the blowpipe to carbonic acid. In lustre, crystalline form, optical properties, density, and hardness they are identical with the natural stone.

In several cases Moissan separated ten to fifteen microscopic diamonds from a single ingot. The larger of these are about 0·75 mm. long, the octahedra being 0·2 mm.

The accompanying illustrations (Fig. 22) are copied from drawings in Moissan’s book Le Four Electrique.

Along with carbon, molten iron dissolves other bodies which possess tinctorial powers. We know of blue, green, pink, yellow, and orange diamonds. One batch of iron might contain an impurity colouring the stones blue, another lot would tend towards the formation of pink stones, another of green, and so on. Cobalt, nickel, chromium, and manganese, all metals present in the blue ground, would produce these colours.

A New Formation of Diamond

I have long speculated as to the possibility of obtaining artificially such pressures and temperatures as would fulfil the above conditions. In their researches on the gases from fired gunpowder and cordite, Sir Frederick Abel and Sir Andrew Noble obtained in closed steel cylinders pressures as great as 95 tons to the square inch, and temperatures as high as 4000° C. According to a paper recently communicated to the Royal Society, Sir Andrew Noble, exploding cordite in closed vessels, has obtained a pressure of 8000 atmospheres, or 50 tons per square inch, with a temperature reaching in all probability 5400° Ab.

Here, then, we have conditions favourable for the liquefaction of carbon, and were the time of explosion sufficient to allow the reactions to take place, we should certainly expect to get the liquid carbon to solidify in the crystalline state.[7]

By the kindness of Sir Andrew Noble I have been enabled to work upon some of the residues obtained in closed vessels after explosions, and I have submitted them to the same treatment that the granulated iron had gone through. After weeks of patient toil I removed the amorphous carbon, the graphite, the silica,[8] and other constituents of the ash of cordite, and obtained a residue among which, under the microscope, crystalline particles could be distinguished. Some of these particles, from their crystalline appearance and double refraction, were silicon carbide; others were probably diamonds. The whole residue was dried and fused at a good red heat in an excess of potassium bifluoride, to which was added, during fusion, 5 per cent of nitre. (Previous experiments had shown me that this mixture readily attacked and dissolved silicon carbide; unfortunately it also attacks diamond to a slight degree.) All the operations of washing and acid treatment were performed in a large platinum crucible by decantation (except the preliminary attack with nitric acid and potassium chlorate, when a hard glass vessel was used); the final result was washed into a shallow watch-glass and the selection made under the microscope. The residue, after thorough washing and then heating in fuming sulphuric acid, was washed, and the largest crystalline particles picked out and mounted.

From the treatment the residual crystals had undergone, chemists will agree with me that diamonds only could stand such an ordeal; on submitting them to skilled crystallographic authorities my opinion is confirmed. Speaking of the largest crystal, one eminent authority calls it “a diamond showing octahedral planes with dark boundaries due to high refracting index.” After careful examination, another authority writes of the same crystal diamond, “I think one may safely say that the position and angles of its faces, and of its cleavages, the absence of birefringence, and the high refractive index are all compatible with the properties of the diamond crystallising in the form of an octahedron. Others of the remaining crystals, which show a similar high refractive index, appeared to me to present the same features.”

It would have been more conclusive had I been able to get further evidence as to the density and hardness of the crystals; but from what I have already said I think there is no doubt that in these closed vessel explosions we have another method of producing the diamond artificially.

CHAPTER X

THE NATURAL FORMATION OF THE DIAMOND

An hypothesis is of little value if it only elucidates half a problem. Let us see how far we can follow out the ferric hypothesis to explain the volcanic pipes. In the first place we must remember these so-called volcanic vents are admittedly not filled with the eruptive rocks, scoriaceous fragments, etc., constituting the ordinary contents of volcanic ducts.

Certain artificial diamonds present the appearance of an elongated drop. I have seen diamonds which have exactly the appearance of drops of liquid separated in a pasty condition and crystallised on cooling. Diamonds are sometimes found with little appearance of crystallisation, but with rounded forms similar to those which a liquid might assume if kept in the midst of another liquid with which it would not mix. Other drops of liquid carbon retained for sufficient time above their melting-point would coalesce with adjacent drops, and on slow cooling would separate in the form of large perfect crystals. Two drops, joining after incipient crystallisation, might assume the not uncommon form of interpenetrating twin crystals.

Many circumstances point to the conclusion that the diamond of the chemist and the diamond of the mine are strangely akin as to origin. It is evident that the diamond has not been formed in situ in the blue ground. The genesis must have taken place at vast depths under enormous pressure. The explosion of large diamonds on coming to the surface shows extreme tension. More diamonds are found in fragments and splinters than in perfect crystals; and it is noteworthy that although these splinters and fragments must be derived from the breaking up of a large crystal, yet in only one instance have pieces been found which could be fitted together, and these occurred at different levels. Does not this fact point to the conclusion that the blue ground is not their true matrix? Nature does not make fragments of crystals. As the edges of the crystals are still sharp and unabraded, the locus of formation cannot have been very distant from the present sites. There were probably many sites of crystallisation differing in place and time, or we should not see such distinctive characters in the gems from different mines, nor indeed in the diamonds from different parts of the same mine.

I start with the reasonable supposition that at a sufficient depth[9] there were masses of molten iron at great pressure and high temperature, holding carbon in solution, ready to crystallise out on cooling. Far back in time the cooling from above caused cracks in superjacent strata through which water[10] found its way. On reaching the incandescent iron the water would be converted into gas, and this gas would rapidly disintegrate and erode the channels through which it passed, grooving a passage more and more vertical in the necessity to find the quickest vent to the surface. But steam in the presence of molten or even red-hot iron liberates large volumes of hydrogen gas, together with less quantities of hydrocarbons[11] of all kinds—liquid, gaseous, and solid. Erosion commenced by steam would be continued by the other gases; it would be easy for pipes, large as any found in South Africa, to be scored out in this manner.

Sir Andrew Noble has shown that when the screw stopper of his steel cylinders in which gunpowder explodes under pressure is not absolutely perfect, gas escapes with a rush so overpowering and a temperature so high as to score a wide channel in the metal. To illustrate my argument Sir Andrew Noble has been kind enough to try a special experiment. Through a cylinder of granite he drilled a hole 0·2 inch diameter, the size of a small vent. This was made the stopper of an explosion chamber, in which a quantity of cordite was fired, the gases escaping through the granite vent. The pressure was about 1500 atmospheres and the whole time of escape was less than half a second. The erosion produced by the escaping gases and by the heat of friction scored out a channel more than half an inch diameter and melted the granite along the course. If steel and granite are thus vulnerable at comparatively moderate gaseous pressure, it is easy to imagine the destructive upburst of hydrogen and water-gas, grooving for itself a channel in the diabase and quartzite, tearing fragments from resisting rocks, covering the country with debris, and finally, at the subsidence of the great rush, filling the self-made pipe with a water-borne magma in which rocks, minerals, iron oxide, shale, petroleum, and diamonds are violently churned in a veritable witch’s cauldron! As the heat abated the water vapour would gradually give place to hot water, which, forced through the magma, would change some of the mineral fragments into the existing forms of to-day.

Each outbreak would form a dome-shaped hill; the eroding agency of water and ice would plane these eminences until all traces of the original pipes were lost.

Actions such as I have described need not have taken place simultaneously. As there must have been many molten masses of iron with variable contents of carbon, different kinds of colouring matter, solidifying with varying degrees of rapidity, and coming in contact with water at intervals throughout long periods of geological time—so must there have been many outbursts and upheavals, giving rise to pipes containing diamonds. And these diamonds, by sparseness of distribution, crystalline character, difference of tint, purity of colour, varying hardness, brittleness, and state of tension, have the story of their origin impressed upon them, engraved by natural forces—a story which future generations of scientific men may be able to interpret with greater precision than is possible to-day.

CHAPTER XI

METEORIC DIAMONDS

Sensational as is the story of the diamond industry in South Africa, quite another aspect fixes the attention of the chemist. The diamonds come out of the mines, but how did they get in? How were they formed? What is their origin?

Gardner Williams, who knows more about diamonds than any man living, is little inclined to indulge in speculation. In his fascinating book he frankly says:

“I have been frequently asked, ‘What is your theory of the original crystallisation of the diamond?’ and the answer has always been, ‘I have none; for after seventeen years of thoughtful study, coupled with practical research, I find that it is easier to “drive a coach and four” through most theories that have been propounded than to suggest one which would be based on any non-assailable data.’ All that can be said is that in some unknown manner carbon, which existed deep down in the internal regions of the earth, was changed from its black and uninviting appearance to the most beautiful gem which ever saw the light of day.”

Another diamond theory appeals to the imagination. It is said the diamond is a gift from Heaven, conveyed to earth in meteoric showers. The suggestion, I believe, was first broached by A. Meydenbauer,[12] who says, “The diamond can only be of cosmic origin, having fallen as a meteorite at later periods of the earth’s formation. The available localities of the diamond contain the residues of not very compact meteoric masses which may, perhaps, have fallen in prehistoric ages, and which have penetrated more or less deeply, according to the more or less resistant character of the surface where they fell. Their remains are crumbling away on exposure to the air and sun, and the rain has long ago washed away all prominent masses. The enclosed diamonds have remained scattered in the river beds, while the fine light matrix has been swept away.”

According to this hypothesis, the so-called volcanic pipes are simply holes bored in the solid earth by the impact of monstrous meteors—the larger masses boring the holes, while the smaller masses, disintegrating in their fall, distributed diamonds broadcast. Bizarre as such a theory appears, I am bound to say there are many circumstances which show that the notion of the heavens raining diamonds is not impossible.

The most striking confirmation of the meteoric theory comes from Arizona. Here, on a broad open plain, over an area about five miles in diameter, have been scattered one or two thousand masses of metallic iron, the fragments varying in weight from half a ton to a fraction of an ounce. There is no doubt these masses formed part of a meteoric shower, although no record exists as to when the fall took place. Curiously enough, near the centre, where most of the meteorites have been found, is a crater with raised edges three-quarters of a mile in diameter and about 600 feet deep, bearing exactly the appearance which would be produced had a mighty mass of iron struck the ground and buried itself deep under the surface. Altogether, ten tons of this iron have been collected, and specimens of the Canyon Diablo meteorite are in most collectors’ cabinets.

An ardent mineralogist—the late Dr. Foote—cutting a section of this meteorite, found the tools were injured by something vastly harder than metallic iron. He examined the specimen chemically, and soon after announced to the scientific world that the Canyon Diablo meteorite contained black and transparent diamonds. This startling discovery was afterwards verified by Professors Moissan and Friedel, and Moissan, working on 183 kilogrammes of the Canyon Diablo meteorite, has recently found smooth black diamonds and transparent diamonds in the form of octahedra with rounded edges, together with green, hexagonal crystals of carbon silicide. The presence of carbon silicide in the meteorite shows that it must at some time have experienced the temperature of the electric furnace. Since this revelation the search for diamonds in meteorites has occupied the attention of chemists all over the world.

Fig. 23 A, C, and D, are reproductions of photographs of true diamonds I myself have extracted from the Canyon Diablo meteorite.