Ducks and Geese

Packing and Shipping Hatching Eggs

Eggs for hatching must be shipped when they are fresh as duck eggs tend to deteriorate in quality quite rapidly. They may be shipped fairly long distances. Shipment may be made either by express or by Parcel Post. In order to prevent breakage and to lessen the effects of the jar to which the eggs are subjected during shipment, they must be carefully packed. One of the best methods is to use an ordinary market basket. Line the basket well on the bottom and sides with excelsior. Wrap each egg in paper and then wrap in excelsior so that there will be a good thick cushion of excelsior between the eggs and they will not be allowed to come in contact with one another. Pack the eggs in the basket securely standing them on end so that they cannot move or shift around. Cover the top of the eggs with a thick layer of excelsior using enough so that it runs up well above the sides of the basket. Over the top sew a piece of strong cotton cloth. Instead of sewing the cloth it can be pushed up under the outside rim of the basket with a case knife, this being quicker and equally as effective as sewing.

CHAPTER III
Commercial Duck Farming—Location—Estimate of Equipment and Capital Necessary in Starting the Business

Location of Plant. On Long Island the commercial duck plants are located along the streams, especially those on the southern shore of the Island, which empty into the various bays. Locations along these streams are not easy to secure at the present time owing to the fact that duck farms are not allowed in many sections where summer homes have been built. A water site of this sort is very valuable, although not absolutely essential, since it provides water yards for the breeding ducks and for the fattening ducklings if desired, and reduces the labor and cost of equipment materially since the ducks always have access to water and no additional provision need be made to provide them with drinking water. It also enables the ducks to keep their plumage clean. Usually these locations are on fresh water streams but some of them are further out toward the bay where the water is salty or at least brackish.

The mature ducks thrive well on the salt water and do not have to be furnished with fresh drinking water in addition. For the young ducks, however, with a salt water location it is necessary to provide fresh drinking water. A few farms in other sections of the country are what are known as dry land farms, that is to say, they are not situated on the bank of a stream. In such locations running water is carried through the yards so that the ducks have an ample supply of drinking water and in some cases artificial ponds are constructed to provide water in which the breeding ducks can swim. Formerly the idea was universally held that swimming water was essential for the breeders in order to secure good fertility, and many duck farmers still believe that better results can be secured in this way. On some of the dry land duck farms, however, breeding ducks are successfully kept without such swimming places. The young market ducklings do not require water to swim in although some raisers prefer to have it and it is commonly allowed where readily available. On the dry land farms provision is made simply for a continuous supply of fresh drinking water for the fattening ducklings. Ducklings kept out of the water, do not take as much exercise and, in consequence, fatten a little more readily.

Making a Start in Duck Farming

Duck farms or plants are sometimes operated on a considerable scale at the beginning, the plans being carefully laid by some experienced duck man. In these cases, operations at the start may be of sufficient magnitude so that the output will amount to 15,000 or 20,000 ducklings in a year. In most cases, however, these places have been the result of a more gradual growth from a small beginning, a condition made necessary either by the inexperience of the grower or by lack of capital. Not infrequently men engaged in other forms of farming but possessing a suitable location will keep 200 or 300 breeding ducks and from this gradually build up a good sized duck plant.

Equipment, Capital, etc. Required. The estimates given as to the amount of equipment and capital required are based on the assumption that a plant is to be operated of sufficient size to have a yearly output of about 30,000 ducklings. It must be understood in this connection that location and various other conditions or circumstances will influence the cost of different items of equipment and for this reason these estimates must not be considered as absolute but should rather serve as a guide or basis on which to figure. The figures here given contemplate the building up of an establishment which is efficient but which is in no particular elaborate, the buildings and other equipment being as simple and inexpensive as possible.

Lay-out or Arrangement of the Plant. The plant must be carefully planned so as to make the best possible use of the land and particularly of the water frontage. It is particularly important to arrange the buildings in such a manner as to cut down labor as much as possible. If there is any expectation of enlarging the capacity at some future time, this must also be borne in mind in the arrangement of the various buildings and yards. The incubator cellar should be convenient to the No. 1 brooder house and the various brooder houses to one another. The brooder house must likewise be convenient to the growing and fattening houses and yards and these in turn to the killing house. The feed room should be centrally located so as to save labor as much as possible in feeding the ducks.

Land Required. For a duck plant of the size indicated 10 acres of land should be ample. This, however, means that no effort would be made to grow any of the feed for the ducks or ducklings with the exception of green feed. In some cases where the lay of the land is unusually favorable so that the plant can be laid out to the very best advantage, a smaller amount of ground than this might be sufficient but it is not well to figure on less than 10 acres.

Number of Breeders Required. With the usual methods of management and with good success, one may estimate that 40 young ducks can be marketed each year from each breeding female. This is a good average although in some good years duck raisers will do a little better than this. On the other hand in poor years they will not do so well. For a plant having an output of 30,000 market ducks there would therefore be needed in the neighborhood of 800 breeding ducks in addition to 100 drakes.

Housing Required for Breeders. In figuring on the amount of housing required for this number of breeding ducks, it is necessary to figure on 2½ to 3 square feet of floor space per bird, 3 square feet being better than 2½. This would require a housing space 20 feet deep by 120 feet long. However ducks are not usually housed in one building of this size, and in fact it is better not to do so since the smaller the flock of breeders kept together the better they will do. In no case should a duck raiser run more than 400 ducks in a flock and it is very much better to run them in pens of 100 each. In fact, some breeders do not place more than 25 to 50 breeding ducks in a pen.

Incubator Capacity. Incubators are used exclusively for hatching the eggs. At the present time in practically all cases some form of hot water mammoth incubator is utilized for this purpose. An investment is required both in incubators and in a cellar in which to operate them. In figuring on the incubator capacity necessary to take care of a proposition of this size, it is necessary to base the estimate on the number of eggs produced during the season of flush production. The duck raiser figures on incubating all eggs suitable for the purpose rather than to sell any of them for other purposes as there is a greater profit in rearing and marketing the ducklings. For that reason he must have incubator capacity enough to take care of all the eggs laid at any time of the year. During the season of flush production the yield will ordinarily run in the neighborhood of 80%. The period of incubation is 28 days but 2 days more should be added to this to allow for cleaning out the machines, etc., before starting another hatch. This means that there would be 30 days between hatches. Figuring on 800 ducks with an 80% production for 30 days an incubator capacity of around 19,200 eggs would be required.

Brooder Capacity. A brooder house capacity, where artificial heat can be supplied, sufficient to take care of about half of the total output of the plant at one time is necessary. This means there would have to be on this plant a heated brooder house capacity for 15,000 ducklings. About half of this number or 7500 would need accommodations in the number 1 or warmest brooder house where the heat can be kept up to 65 or 70 degrees in the house itself, and warmer of course under the hover. The other 7500 ducklings capacity would be in the number 2 house, that is, a house where heat could be supplied in the early spring and where the temperature could be run up to 60 degrees. Hovers in such a house are not really needed but it is common to cover the hot waterpipes with a platform in order to provide a runway on which one can run a wheel barrow and thus simplify feeding. Ordinarily after May 1 no heat is needed in the number 2 brooder house. The young ducks are usually 2 to 3 weeks old when they go into the number 2 house and they stay there for about 2 weeks depending on the weather. Heat for the brooder houses is supplied by means of hot water pipes and a coal burning stove such as are used in brooder houses for chickens. A number 3 or cold brooder house is also needed where ducklings can be housed and can be driven in at night and in cold weather after they have graduated from the number 2 house. From the number 3 house a part of the ducklings are taken directly to the yards where they are housed in open front sheds.

Fattening Houses or Sheds. In addition to the brooder houses, there are required fattening houses or sheds for the ducks when they are moved from the No. 3 brooder house to the yards. Suitable houses for this purpose are 16 feet deep by 24 feet long. In front they are 5 feet high and in the rear 3½ feet. They are set on posts with a base board around to make them tight. The fronts are entirely open and provided with curtains which are used only in the winter to keep out the snow. The ducklings are shut in these houses when desired by means of wire panels which close the lower part of the front. Houses such as described are divided into two parts and each side will accommodate 200 ducklings.

Feed Storage. Considerable feed storage room is necessary as it is very desirable to be able to buy feed in quantity and also to carry a considerable stock on hand in order to offset the possibility of not being able to secure feed at any time. There should be storage capacity for 4 cars of 30 tons each, in other words, for 120 tons of feed. Still greater capacity than this is desirable. In connection with the feed storage there should be a place where the feed can be mixed and where feed can be cooked. Two power operated feed mixers are required as one is not sufficient during the busy season to allow the mixing and feeding of the mash for both the breeders and the young stock at the same time. A feed cutter is necessary in preparing the green feed which is mixed in the mash. The usual type of kettle feed cooker is commonly used for boiling fish and preparing other cooked feeds but in its place a small four-horse steam boiler can be utilized to good advantage as this makes it possible to cook the feed right in the mixer by using a steam hose.

Killing and Picking House. A killing and picking house where the ducks can be prepared for market is another necessary building but this need not be an expensive building. It must be located with reference to its convenience to the rest of the plant. It is also desirable to locate it over a spring if one is available for the spring water can be used to excellent advantage in cooling the dressed ducklings. When a spring is not available water must be piped to this building. The killing house is usually built with at least one side open or partly open. A place is provided outside the picking room where the ducks can be hung and bled. Inside room is required for six or eight pickers. A kettle for heating water to be used in scalding the ducks is necessary as are also tanks in which to place the ducks after they are picked. Additional room is needed where the ducks can be weighed and packed ready for shipment.

Residence. In addition to the other buildings enumerated, a residence would of course be necessary. The size and elaborateness of this and consequently its cost depends entirely upon the owner's needs and wishes.

Horse Power. One horse and wagon for the purpose of drawing the feed about the plant and for certain other necessary work would be required. If the owner desires to do his own hauling of the feed from the railroad and the other necessary trucking he would, of course, have to keep more horses, a team at least, or an automobile truck. Where only one horse is kept, this trucking must be hired done.

Feeding Track. On many of the larger duck farms, a feed track is employed in feeding the stock. Such a track consists of a framework of sufficient strength to support a car filled with mash which is pushed along the track by hand. The track leads from the feed mixer across the various yards where the ducks to be fed are located, including both the breeding ducks, yard ducks and brooder ducks in yards. This involves a considerable amount of trackage which must be fairly level and which runs over the yard fences or along the ends of the yards so that the feed can be shoveled directly from the car into the feeding trays in the yards. The use of a feed track simplifies the feeding considerably but its construction is quite expensive. Where a track is not used, the feed as mixed is dumped into a low wagon which is driven along the yards, or through them by removing movable panels in the fences and the feed shoveled from the wagon to the feed trays.

Electric Lights. Most duck farms at the present time are located where electric lighting is available. It is desirable and in fact almost necessary to have the various houses wired so that lights can be turned on when desired. In addition, lights are usually provided in the yards for fattening ducks and are used at night and especially during storms to keep the ducks from stampeding.

Water Supply. An adequate water supply is essential. This will consist of a well or spring furnishing an ample amount of water, a power pump and a water supply tank. From the tank, the water must be piped to the incubator cellar, the brooder houses, the killing house, the feed house and to any of the yards where the ducks do not have access to a natural supply of good water. In addition, of course, the water from the same tank is usually used to supply the residence.

Fences. Not a great deal of investment is necessary in fences since the yards are rather small and the fences are low. Two-foot fences of two-inch mesh wire are used for the yard ducks while for the little ducks 18-inch wire of one-inch mesh is used. The biggest items of expense connected with the fences are the cost of the stakes or posts used in their construction and the labor used in this work. The portion of the yards extending into the water are the most troublesome and most expensive to build. In some cases, rather elaborate wooden picket fences are used in the water yards. These are more permanent but are more expensive to build.

Labor. For a plant of the size indicated there would be required in addition to an active working proprietor three other men. One man would be needed to operate the incubators, one man would devote his time to the brooder houses, one man would feed the yard ducks and the fattening pens, and one man would do the killing and packing, take care of the feathers, clean the yards, etc. Of course, there would be periods when these men would not have their entire time taken up with their particular duties and this would permit them to turn in and help with the miscellaneous work on the plant.

In addition to the regular men employed, additional labor would be necessary to do the picking. For this purpose pickers are usually brought in and work by the piece. During the spring of 1920 these pickers received six cents per duck and they will average about 75 ducks a day, beginning work at 6 in the morning and finishing by noon or a little later. Some pickers will average as high as 100 ducks a day. In the busy season from 800 to 1200 ducks will be marketed per week and the usual practice is to kill and pick not over three days a week, usually during the first part of the week.

Invested Capital. Investment in the business exclusive of working capital, that is to say, the money in the land and buildings and other equipment would require under present conditions about $1,000 for each thousand ducks marketed. In other words, in a plant of this size, close to $30,000 would be invested. The amount of invested capital depends to some extent upon location and upon the elaborateness of the buildings and other equipment but with a well laid out economical plant an investment of the size indicated should be sufficient.

Working Capital. In addition to the capital invested in the plant there would be required a considerable amount of working capital. From the first of November to the beginning of the marketing of the ducks there would be required from $6,000 to $8,000 with which to purchase feed, meet the pay roll, and for other running expenses. Even after the marketing begins there would be a period of from a month to six weeks when the expenses will continue to be greater than the receipts so that some additional capital might be necessary. However, returns would begin to come in which could be used to take care of the more pressing current obligations so that additional working capital which might be needed over that indicated would not be large.

Profits. The profits in commercial duck raising vary widely, as must be expected, depending upon the management, upon the season and upon prices received. After deducting all overhead charges and interest on the investment, the net return per duck should be at least 10 cents per duckling marketed. In fact the return should be 15 cents to provide much inducement to engage in the business. Some seasons the returns will run greater than this but on the other hand, there is always the chance of occasional big losses.

CHAPTER IV
Commercial Duck Farming—Management of the Breeding Stock

Distinguishing Young from Old Ducks. In this connection it is of interest to know how young ducks can be readily distinguished from the older birds. The young ducks have bright yellow legs and bills while the old ducks after a period of laying, lose a considerable amount of the yellow from these sections. In addition, soon after the ducks begin to lay, their bills as a rule will begin to be streaked with black. Young ducks can also be told from the old ducks by feeling of the end of the breast bone which runs to a point at the abdomen. In the older ducks this is hard while in the young ducks it is gristly and bends easily. The windpipe of an old duck is hard and rather difficult to compress or dent while in the young duck it is softer and easily dented.

Selection of Breeding Ducks. The breeders are usually selected from the ducklings which reach market age from the last week in June through July. As these lots become ready for market and are driven into the pens to be slaughtered each duck is handled and any especially good birds which the proprietor thinks will make good breeders are thrown out at this time.

In making selection of breeders those are chosen which are healthy and thrifty and which have good wide, long and deep bodies. Ducks with crooked wings, crooked tails, hump backs or paddle legs are rejected for this purpose. After the young ducks for breeders are selected they are put in a yard or fattening pen until the number which the owner expects to keep is complete. These young breeders generally begin to moult soon after they are selected and from this time on they are fed whole corn and plenty of green feed until it is time to begin feeding the laying ration. Some of the breeding ducks will usually begin to lay about December 1 although they will not lay heavily at that time. The laying ration described later should be begun about that time or a couple of weeks earlier.

Number of Females to a Drake. As a rule on commercial duck farms the birds are mated in the proportion of about one drake to seven ducks. This proportion will vary to some extent under different methods of management and weather conditions and may run all the way from 1 to 5 to 1 to 8. The smaller number of drakes should be used late in the season while the larger number will give better fertility early in the breeding season.

Since the drakes do not fight seriously, flock matings can be made. Better results will be obtained from smaller flocks than from large flocks and there will also be less cracked eggs and less very dirty eggs from the smaller flocks. Before the ducks are let out in the morning there is a tendency for them to run back and forth through the pens, and in this way they tramp over many of the eggs which are laid anywhere about the floor. The larger the flock the more cracked and dirty eggs will result. While the drakes do not fight each other they do at times injure and kill the ducks to some extent when three or four drakes may chase one duck. In this way they may injure the ducks' backs and often pick their eyes and necks. Whenever a duck is found which is injured she should be removed from the flock. Difficulty of this sort is most prevalent about the 1st of March. If the trouble gets very bad it can be stopped to some extent by cutting back the upper bills of the drakes about one-fourth of an inch with a tinsnip or by reducing the proportion of drakes.

Securing Breeding Drakes. It is common practice on duck plants to avoid inbreeding by securing drakes from some other flock each year. This is usually accomplished by buying the drakes outright from some neighboring duck farmer. It may also be accomplished by purchasing a few eggs for hatching in order to secure new blood. In any particular community there is a tendency for the duck farmers to trade breeding drakes among themselves for a period of years with the result that they all have much the same blood and not a great deal of benefit is obtained from securing the drakes from some neighbor's flock. It is undoubtedly good practice to go farther afield occasionally for a supply of breeding drakes. In purchasing stock for new blood be sure that it is as good as the home stock and better if it can be found. It will do no good to purchase and use inferior stock and may do much harm.

Houses and Yards for Breeders

The breeding flocks are usually confined to breeding yards. The size of these yards depends upon the size of the breeding flock but large yards are not required. A yard for 200 breeders is not as a rule larger than 100 by 200 feet including the water part of the yard. Houses and yards should be located on sand if possible as this is easier to keep clean and therefore keeps the birds in better condition. Occasional flocks of breeding ducks are allowed their liberty but this is not common practice nor is it good practice unless the surroundings are clean and the ducks do not have access to stagnant mud or refuse in which they can work. If ducks work too much in this kind of material they will eat more or less of it which injures the eggs for hatching purposes.

Many different styles of houses are used for breeders, some of which are decidedly more elaborate than is necessary. A very satisfactory economical house is one 20 feet deep, 7 feet high in front and 4 feet at back, with a shed roof. This can be constructed of tongue and groove material or may be made of unmatched stuff and covered with paper. A house of this proportion makes a good light house and it can be carried in length according to the size of the flock. For a breeding unit of 200 ducks, which is a good unit to use, a house 20 feet deep and 30 to 40 feet long is suitable. No floor is used in the house but it should be well filled up with dirt so that the water will not come in.

One or more good sized openings are left in the front of the breeding house for ventilation, or windows may be placed in the front which can be used for this purpose. Good ventilation is necessary. Additional ventilation is secured from the doors. If the weather is mild the doors are left partly open, if cold they are nearly closed, while when the weather is hot they are left entirely open. A good scheme is to use a sort of Dutch door so that the bottom or top half can be opened independently. In this way the top part of the doors can be left open so as to let in the sunlight and still keep the ducks in the house or the top may be left closed and the bottom opened so as to allow the ducks to go in or out and still cut down the amount of ventilation. When the weather is warm the doors may be left entirely open except for a board 18 inches to 2 feet wide inserted in the bottom of the door when it is desired to keep the ducks in.

Shade is essential for the breeders and if not provided naturally by trees must be supplied by means of artificial shelters.

Bedding and Cleaning the Breeding Houses. Usually straw, meadow hay, or swale hay is used for bedding. Shavings make good material for this purpose if they do not contain too much sawdust. The principal objection to shavings is that it takes longer to bed with them. Often a few joists are laid at the back of the house on which to pile bales of straw or other bedding so that it will be kept dry and will serve as an emergency supply available for bedding the house in stormy days. The houses should be bedded fairly often in order to keep the floors clean and dry and so as not to allow the ducks' feet to get cold. The frequency with which bedding is necessary will depend upon the weather. In winter it may at times be necessary to bed every day. In May it may be necessary only twice a week and still later in the season only once a week. In wet weather the ducks track in lots of mud and water and frequent bedding helps to keep the eggs clean. The houses are cleaned out only once a year and this is usually done after the ducks have stopped laying. To clean out the houses while the ducks are laying would disturb them and tend to stop their egg production.

Cleaning the Breeding Yards. The yards should be cleaned whenever they need it, that is, whenever they begin to get sloppy or sticky. It is a matter of judgment to decide when this is necessary. The character of the soil influences this, as sandy yards absorb the droppings better and do not need cleaning as frequently as heavier soils. In the yards for the breeding ducks, or the water yards, this will as a rule not be over 2 or 3 times a season. In dry weather cleaning is accomplished by sweeping the yards with a broom. In wet weather the droppings spread over the yard and are packed down by the ducks' feet until they form a layer of putty-like material which cannot be swept off but is scraped off by means of a hoe.

Water Yards for Breeders. Formerly it was the consensus of opinion that breeders needed water in which they could swim in order to keep in good breeding condition and to give the best results in fertility of the eggs. At present it is not considered necessary to have sufficient water to permit swimming although many breeders prefer to do this and feel that they get better results from it. However, breeding ducks have been and are being kept successfully in dry yards where water is supplied to them simply in an amount sufficient to allow them to drink and to clean themselves. Where water yards are provided this should not be on stagnant water but there should be some circulation of the water so as to keep it clean and fresh. Where the lay of the land is such that it is not possible to run all the yards down to a stream for this purpose it is sometimes possible to dig a canal or ditch from the stream to the yards so as to allow the ducks access to the water. Where the yards can extend into the water it saves a great deal of labor or considerable expense in equipment as it is not then necessary to provide the ducks with drinking water by means of some artificial arrangement such as a concrete gutter or ditch extending through the yards or by means of artificial ponds.

If the water yards used freeze over in winter it is necessary to cut holes in the ice so that the ducks can get water for drinking purposes. Sometimes the ducks will go into these water holes and after getting their plumage wet will come out and sit down in the yard and freeze fast to the ground. During such weather conditions it is necessary to make the rounds of the yards frequently and to loosen any ducks that have frozen fast. If they are left in that condition they are apt to injure themselves in trying to pull free and if left too long will die.

Feeding the Breeders. Breeding ducks are fed twice a day, in the morning and at night. It is usual practice to feed the breeders last in the morning and first at night. The reason for feeding them last in the morning is that they are usually fed in the yards rather than the house and they should be kept in until they are through laying which will be after daylight. A good breeding ration consists of the following, the proportions being given by measure in bushels.

• 1 bushel bran.
• 1 bushel low-grade flour.
• 1 bushel corn meal.
• 1 bushel green feed.
• ½ bushel either raw or cooked vegetables.
• 1 bushel in 10 of beef scrap.
• ½ bushel in 10 of cooked fish.

This ration will keep the breeding ducks in good flesh but there will be no difficulty in their getting too fat. It is also a good laying ration and will promote good egg production. The vegetables used in this ration usually consist of sugar beets, cow beets, potatoes, etc. However, if potatoes are used the amount of flour in the ration should be reduced a little so as not to make the ration too heavy. Beets, when used, are fed raw cut up and mixed in the feed. Small potatoes, boiled and mixed in the feed are more valuable as they have a greater food value than beets. Some duck growers feed fish entirely, using no beef scrap. This is done where a plentiful supply of fish can be secured by going out into the bay after them. However, this is not very good practice for a sufficient supply of fish may not always be available and the ducks are so fond of the fish that they will not eat well the beef scrap used as a substitute for the fish, until they have become used to it. Fish is prepared for feeding by boiling it thoroughly in a feed cooker.

The available land on the plant is used to grow a supply of green feed. Rye is used for this purpose early in the spring as soon as it is high enough to mow. It is mowed the first time when it is like a lawn. At this stage it does not have to be cut up. Oats are used in the same way. During the summer fodder corn is used. This is the poorest crop for the purpose but is as a rule the only one available at that time. Rape is sowed in August and its use begun about the time of the first frost and kept up until the hard freezes come or until it is buried under the snow. Creek grass which is secured from the fresh water streams on Long Island by going out in a flat bottom boat and raking it off the creek bottom with a wooden rake, is very much relished by the ducks and is used whenever it is available. However, the supply of this material is not as plentiful as it was formerly and it is rather hard to get. When it is available it can be used either in winter or summer.

Good field clover cut up and boiled with the potatoes or with the fish makes a good green feed. All of these green materials for use in the ration, unless they are already in short lengths, are cut up by means of a power feed cutter before they are mixed in the mash. When no other form of green feed is available ground alfalfa is used but only half as much of this material is mixed with the ration as is used of any of the other kinds of green feed. Wherever possible the various duck yards should be used to grow a crop of green stuff such as oats or rye as this not only helps out on the supply of green feed but also helps to sweeten the soil. The growing of a crop on the heavier types of soil used for ducks is especially important as such soils are more likely to become contaminated from the droppings.

The ration for the ducks is mixed up in a power feed mixer which works much on the principle of a power dough mixer. In fact, dough mixers are used on some plants. In mixing the feed enough water should be added to bring the material to a consistency where it will hold together when squeezed in the hand. In fact, the consistency should be between crumbly and sticky, but should never be sloppy. The feed is dumped from the mixer into a low horse drawn wagon and driven around to the various yards where it is shoveled off on to the feed troughs or trays. On some large duck plants a track is provided which runs over the yards and over this a car loaded with feed is pushed and the feed shoveled into the feed trays.

The breeders should be fed in the same place. If feeding is begun in the house this practice should be continued. If feeding is begun in the yards it should be continued there. To change disturbs the ducks and interferes with their egg production.

Coarse ground oyster shell about as large as corn should be kept before the breeders all the time in boxes where they can help themselves. A flock of 700 or 800 breeders will eat upwards of 200 pounds a week of this material. Unless sand is available in the yards where they can get it, ducks should also have access to a supply of good sharp creek sand but when kept in sand yards no other form of grit need be furnished.

The usual method of feeding is to utilize flat troughs on which the feed is shoveled. Only as much feed should be given at the regular feeding time as the ducks will eat up clean. This makes it necessary to watch the feeding carefully and to regulate the amount accordingly. It is good practice to gather up any feed that is left by the ducks so that it will not lie there to sour and spoil as such feed is bad for the birds.

Egg Production

The average egg production of Pekin ducks kept under commercial farm conditions will run from 80 to 125 eggs per head for the season. This will vary somewhat from year to year and also with the management and feed given the ducks. The laying begins to a small extent about December 1 and gradually increases until the ducks are laying freely in February. As the hot weather of summer begins to come on the laying drops off until about July 1 and after this not enough eggs are produced as a rule to pay to hold the breeding ducks longer. Often many ducks will stop laying considerably before this, especially those which have started laying early and it may not pay to keep such pens later than May. Laying takes place early in the morning and practically all the eggs are laid soon after daylight. It is for this reason that the ducks are usually shut up at night so that all the eggs laid will be secured as some of them would otherwise be lost by their being laid around in the yard or in the water. In the spring the ducks can be let out about 6 a. m., as the laying will be pretty well over by that time, but in winter they must be kept shut up later in order to secure all the eggs. After the ducks start laying in the spring they are very regular and continuous layers and will miss fewer days than most hens.

After the breeding ducks are first put in the breeding pens and shut in the houses at night it is common practice to use electric lights for the first 2 or 3 weeks in order to keep them from stampeding as ducks in strange surroundings are quite nervous and are quite likely to stampede and to run over one another thus causing cripples. Electric lights have also been used to some extent during the late fall and winter for the purpose of inducing egg production earlier than the natural season. As a rule the ducks can be started to laying about 4 weeks after turning on the lights but the average production under this system is not likely to run more than 60 eggs for the season as so handled they moult quite early in the spring. A single 25 watt light is sufficient for a house or pen 16 x 24 feet and the lights are left turned on all night.

The object in feeding and caring for the breeding ducks is to keep them from moulting and to keep them laying as long as possible. It must be remembered that any radical change in feed or manner of feeding, shutting them up too closely, change of temperature, or other disturbing conditions are likely to cause moulting and to check egg production. Any change in feed must be made carefully and gradually, not suddenly. It must also be remembered that ducks are excitable birds and must be handled and driven carefully so as to disturb them as little as possible.

Time of Marketing Breeders

The breeders should be turned off to market whenever their egg production drops off so decidedly that it no longer pays to hold them. In most cases this will be about the 1st of July but it may range considerably earlier than this, especially with pens of ducks that have started laying early. When the ducks finish laying their eggs they begin to moult and it is at this time that they should be marketed. If marketing is delayed, the ducks will lose condition as the moulting progresses and will therefore be held at a loss.

Diseases and Pests

Disease. Old ducks, that is, mature ducks, are practically free from disease. Of course, there will be a certain amount of loss in the breeding stock from various causes but this should not run for the entire season more than 10% of the flock. Ducks do not become egg bound, but sometimes, especially during heavy laying, they become ruptured.

Insect Pests. Ducks are remarkably free from lice and other insect pests and those which they do have do not trouble them much. It is unnecessary therefore to take any precautions in the way of treating the ducks to keep them free of insects.

Dogs. Occasionally trouble may be experienced from dogs. If these animals get into the yards with the breeders or the fattening ducks, they may kill a good many and in addition will seriously injure the rest by chasing them and by the fright which the ducks are given.

CHAPTER V
Commercial Duck Farming—Incubation

Incubator Cellar. It is necessary to provide some room in which the incubators can be installed and operated. This may take the form of a cellar, or the incubators may be operated in rooms above the ground. Many of the incubator cellars on duck farms are only partially under ground and not a few of them are built entirely out of ground. The particular size and shape of the cellar or incubator room will, of course, depend upon the number of incubators to be installed and upon their make and shape. Usually these buildings are constructed with rather thick walls so that the temperature of the room will fluctuate less with changes in outside temperature. Provision is also necessary by means of windows or other ventilating devices to provide for good ventilation in the room. The cellars are usually constructed with cement floors as moisture is used freely and wooden floors would rot out quickly.

Incubator Capacity Required. The aim on commercial duck farms is to hatch all of the eggs produced which are suitable for the purpose. Practically no eggs are sold except the cracked eggs or those which would not give good results in the incubator such as too large or too small eggs. Occasionally, of course, there will be sales of duck eggs in comparatively large lots for incubation purposes where someone is starting a duck farm. Occasionally also duck farmers buy from each other a few eggs for incubation in order to secure new blood. On the whole, however, practically all of the eggs laid are incubated and it is necessary to have an incubator capacity sufficient to take care of the eggs as they are produced during the flush season.

Since the egg production at this time will run around about 80% and since the period of incubation is 28 days and a couple more days must be allowed to take the ducklings out of the machines and to clean up the machines, it is necessary to figure on 30 days between hatches. To take care of the flush production at this time there would be required an incubator capacity of from 20 to 25 eggs per head of breeding ducks. The latter figure is a safer estimate than the former. Of course, eggs sufficient to fill the entire incubator capacity are not put in the machines at any one time but different lots are put in as soon as a sufficient number is obtained to make it worth while. There will be, therefore, eggs in various stages of incubation in different sections of the machines at the same time. While Pekin duck eggs will run about ½ heavier in weight than hens' eggs they do not take up a proportionately greater amount of space in the incubator. An incubator tray will accommodate about 5/6 as many Pekin duck eggs as it will hens' eggs.

Age of Hatching Eggs. Duck eggs should be set as often as enough are secured to fill one or more trays in the incubator or enough to produce a sufficient number of ducklings to utilize brooding space to advantage. Since duck eggs deteriorate more rapidly than hens' eggs they cannot be kept so long before they are set. It is best not to save them for longer than one week. During the season of flush production it is not, of course, necessary to save them that long since enough eggs will be secured to set each day if desired. The usual practice at this time is to set twice a week. During the early part of the season when the production of eggs is low and the temperature cool the eggs are often saved for as long a period as two weeks without noticeably bad results.

Care of Hatching Eggs. Eggs for hatching should be kept in a cool place. Any place suitable for keeping hens' eggs for hatching is a suitable place for duck eggs. The temperature should be from 50° to 70° Fahrenheit. Where the eggs are not kept longer than one week, it is not necessary to turn them, especially if they are kept on end. If kept longer than this it is safer to turn them once a day or once in two days, handling them carefully so as not to crack any or to injure their hatching qualities.

Selecting the Eggs for Hatching. Medium sized eggs are preferred for this purpose. Therefore, the extremely large eggs and the very small ones are thrown out. Rough shelled eggs or eggs with crooked or deformed shells are likewise thrown out since they are not likely to hatch well. Eggs that are badly soiled so that they cannot be tested easily are washed but the clean eggs are not. All the eggs intended for incubation purposes are sounded by striking them gently against one another in order to detect and remove the cracked eggs. No selection is made on the basis of color. The eggs may be white, creamy white or a blue, or bluish green in color. At the present time a considerably less proportion of the eggs show a blue tint than formerly. As the egg laying season advances the eggs laid by the ducks tend to get a little larger.

Temperature. Up to the time of testing, that is, about the fifth day, the incubator is run at a temperature of from 101 to 102 degrees. After the fifth day the temperature is kept as near 103 as possible. The most sensitive period for a duck egg is during the first 3 or 4 days of incubation. If they are allowed to get too warm during this time the germ may be killed while if the temperature is too low, development will be retarded.

Position of the Thermometer. In figuring on the proper temperature at which to run the incubator, the thermometer should be so placed that the bulb is on a level with the top of the eggs, preferably touching a fertile egg. If the thermometer bulb rests on an infertile egg the temperature recorded will be lower than the actual temperature of fertile eggs in the later stages of incubation, due to the animal heat of the developing embryos, with the result that the machine would be operated at too high a temperature.

Testing. It is common practice to make only one complete test. This is done on the evening of the fifth day. Testing may be done by means of an ordinary candling device such as is used with hens' eggs, each egg being examined separately. To save time a piece of apparatus may be used which is simple in construction and which simplifies the process of candling considerably. This may be termed a testing table. It consists of a table the same width as an incubator tray and longer than the tray. In the table there is an opening the size of a row of eggs and beneath this are placed several electric light bulbs with reflectors back of them so as to throw the light up through the eggs. By sliding the tray along the table each row of eggs is brought over the lights and their condition can be quickly noted. At this test all the infertile eggs are taken out as well as any eggs in which the germs have died. The infertile eggs after a careful retest are then packed in cases and sent to market where they are usually sold to bakers as tested eggs. While no second test is made of the eggs left in the machines the experienced incubator operator is constantly on the watch for and is constantly removing any eggs which die at a later time. To the experienced eye the color of the egg indicates that it has died as it takes on a sort of pinkish or darkish tint. Duck eggs after they die will spoil very quickly and must be removed promptly as the odor which they throw off is very strong and will prove harmful to the other eggs. The inexperienced operator can readily locate dead eggs by smelling over the tray.