Early Quaker education in Pennsylvania

Of the grammars used we made reference previously to that of Rudiman,[940] which was published in Philadelphia in 1776.[941] This was the first American edition. Another, Davy’s Adminiculum Puerile,[942] or a help for school boys, containing fundamental exercises for beginners, syntax, cautions for mistakes, English for Latin verses, and so forth, which was made easily available by a Philadelphia reprint in 1758, may have been in use. We might expect to find that some of the worthy masters, Pastorius, Willian, Thompson, Wilson, Proud, and others made some contribution in the way of Latin text-books; we are, in that respect, disappointed. Another grammar, but of the English tongue, was that prepared by James and John Gough, which, after being duly inspected by the Board, was adopted for use in the English School in 1761.[943] Since English grammar was also taught in the Latin School, it may have been used in that department also. Concerning the French book or grammar which Anthony Benezet may have used when he was engaged to teach that subject in 1742,[944] we cannot state definitely. However, there was a French School Book published in Philadelphia in 1730,[945] and it may safely be assumed to have been available for his use. The character of the book we do not know. Perrin’s Grammar of the French Tongue was printed in Philadelphia, 1779,[946] and was no doubt the best book available for use of the schools at and subsequent to that time. It may be well to mention here some school books which were in the possession of Daniel Pastorius; their presence may indicate that they, or a part of them, were used in the school. They were: Education, The Young Clerk’s Tutor, Elements of Geometry, A Short Introduction to Grammar, The English School Master, G. Fox’s Primmer, and Teacher’s Instruction for Children.[947]

Some idea of the extent to which mathematics was taught may be gained from certain old exercise books. Some of those, which doubtless belong to the lower schools, dealt with arithmetical exercises, with whole numbers, vulgar and decimal fractions, and commercial arithmetic.[948] Others, clearly more advanced, and doubtless belonging to the Latin school, though some were taught in the English, are chiefly filled with theorems and proven solutions in geometry, trigonometry, conic sections, and spherical trigonometry.[949] This compares quite favorably with the courses suggested in the newspapers, as we have already mentioned.

METHOD

Concerning this topic little is to be added to what has already been suggested in connection with the discussion of the subject matter. Some points of method, of which we are reasonably certain, will be stated. In religious instruction, where the Bible, Penn’s, Barclay’s, Fox’s, and other works were used as the material, a catechetical method was used by parents in the home, by the masters and mistresses in the schools, and in the youths’ meetings, which were always among the first established. This method still prevails to some extent for the young children. Drill in spelling and handwriting has already been mentioned as urged by the overseers in their directions to the masters and mistresses in the Latin and English schools.[950] The chief elements of Latin and Greek instruction were: analysis, parsing, double translation, and the necessary memory drills. The pupils in Proud’s school were also required to speak Latin so far as able to do so. We have also mentioned that in teaching writing the practise was to begin with simple lines, curves, etc., and proceed to the more complex performances.[951] In the majority of subjects “copybooks” were required to be kept. All of these the writer has been privileged to observe, being kept in a very neat and regular fashion.[952]

OTHER LITERATURE USED IN THE MEETINGS

Besides the books already mentioned that are known to have been concerned directly with schools, there were innumerable others which were printed by Friends and circulated at their suggestion among all the meetings. They are largely religious and doctrinal treatises; many of them, though not found thus stated, may have been used in instruction. They were at least of educational importance to the communities that read them. They are mentioned in the minutes of every meeting. Though usually paid for by the meeting, the Board of Overseers in Philadelphia went on record to the effect that fines for absence from, or tardiness in coming to their meetings should be applied to the purchase of books for the school library.[953] Sometimes they were given by bequest, as in the case of the Philadelphia school, which received through the monthly meeting a large collection (for that day) from Thomas Chalkly.[954] The list, as given below, is made up from records of Sadsbury, Westland, Warrington and Fairfax, Uwchlan, Concord, Radnor, New Garden, London Yearly, Philadelphia Yearly, Gwynedd, Falls, Exeter, Wrightstown, Darby, Byberry, Horsham, Abington, and Buckingham meetings, and though perhaps it does not contain all, it does have those most commonly used. This list is as follows:

• Banks, Journal, Life and Travels.
• Barclay, Anarchy of the Ranters.
• Bathurst, Truth Vindicated.
• Benezet, Account of the Friends (in the German language).
• On the Keeping of Slaves.
• Churchman, Journal.
• Claridge, Posthumous works.
• Crisp, Epistles of Stephen Crisp.
• Davis, Journal.
• Edmundson, Journal.
• Elwood, Works.
• Fothergill, Journal.
• Fox, Journal.
• Fuller, Catechism.
• Hall, A Mite into the Treasury.
• Holme, A Serious Call in Christian Love to all People.
• Keith, Way to the City of God.
• London Yearly Meeting’s Epistles.
• Penn, No Cross No Crown.
• Rise and Progress of the Quakers.
• Travels in Germany.
• Philadelphia Yearly Meeting’s Epistles.
• Richardson, Life of John Richardson.
• Sewell, History of Friends.

• Scott, Journal.
• Spaulding, Reason for leaving the National Mode of Worship.
• Stanton, Journal.
• Treatises on Tythes.
• Treatises on Reasons for Silent Waiting.
• Turford, Grounds of an Holy Life.
• Woolman, Journal.

SUMMARY

The first problem presented was how to establish some satisfactory means of school support, which should be permanent, and thus conducive to better schools in every way. Recommendations from the yearly meetings dwelt upon this point in the yearly advices, but being of a general and advisory character, could not compel the lower units to act at once. This lack of power in a control authority was the greatest weakness, and because of it, educational development was not so rapid as it might otherwise have been. The chief forms of school support were: (1) subscription, (2) rates, (3) bonds, and (4) legacies. In accordance with suggestions made by the yearly meeting, plans were adopted by most meetings (in the latter half of the century) for the establishment of permanent funds. These plans were based upon the subscription idea. The chief characteristics of the plans adopted were:

The organization was headed by the yearly meeting, whose advices were distributed among the lower units. The quarterly meeting was nothing more than a supervisory and directing group. The real work of organizing schools was performed by the monthly and preparative meetings. The other quarterly and monthly meetings worked through specially appointed committees.

Several schools, in Philadelphia and Abington, for example, very early acquired permanent lands for their foundation. Others did not gain such foundations until the latter part of the eighteenth century. Even where land was possessed, the schools were quite often held for a time in the meeting houses. Sometimes the meeting house was used until late in the 19th century, as in the case of the Merion School. Other schools were held in the home of the teacher. The buildings were not large, and were often used for the masters’ families, or parts of them let out to tenants. In one case in Philadelphia the schoolhouse was heated for a time with a brick stove.

There were always two classes recognized, the pay pupil and the free pupil. Every necessity was furnished the latter by the board or committee in charge of schools. Teachers (in Philadelphia, at least) had to keep a list of scholars and their expenditures and report to the board. The size of schools remained about the same, but the increase in number of schools indicated the growth of the system in Philadelphia.

Very explicit rules were laid down for the government of the pupils’ behavior, both in school and out. By some masters they were enforced mildly; by others harshly. In spite of excellent rules and premiums offered, the masters were perplexed with the discipline and attendance problems. School was kept for five and one-half days per week and from seven to eight hours each day; however, some were kept only half days. Vacations were brief and seldom. The various student papers indicate the presence of a student organization. To promote the interest of the pupils and assist the master, visitations were performed at periods by the committee on schools.

The curriculum of the Latin School consisted of Latin, Greek, English grammar, writing and mathematics. There was some overlapping of the curricula of the English and Latin schools. Rudiman’s Grammar was used, and Davy’s Adminiculum Puerile, Gough’s English Mannor, and Perrin’s Grammar of the French Tongue were available for use. Whether classical authors were or were not included in the materials used in Greek and Latin classes is not shown by the records. It has been stated that parsing, analysis, double translation, and speaking Latin as much as possible in school, were the chief elements in the method of instruction. Mathematics included anything as advanced as spherical trigonometry and conic sections.

The curriculum of the lower schools consisted of reading, writing, casting accounts and arithmetic. No mention is made that French was taught before Benezet’s coming in 1742. Though no early explicit reference to spelling is made, we infer it must have been taught at an early date. Many schools were kept for poor children in which were taught reading, writing and sewing. The curriculum of the Negro School consisted of reading, writing and arithmetic.

A large amount of literature of religious character was circulated through the meetings, and probably constituted a good part of the materials used in the schools.