INDEX.
- A.
- Absorption, broken earth, 70
- ——, chalk, 29
- ——, sand, 34
- Alignment of public works, vide location, 9–12, 146
- Alluvial deposits, safe load upon, 88–89
- ——, soil, slope, 100
- ——, protection of the banks of rivers, 126
- Angular particles in earth, 36
- Approaches to culverts, 84, 85
- Arched system, dock-walls, 210, 211
- Argillaceous rocks, slopes, 24
- Ashes, slope, 100
- Atmospheric pressure, influence of, 17
- B.
- Backing, dock-walls, 214, 215
- Ballast, upon soft soil, 82, 151
- Basalt, 18
- Beach, artificial slope, 180
- ——, natural slope, 100, 101
- Benching ground, 160, 162
- Blue clay, 38, 89
- Bog-land, safe load upon, 88
- ——, sustaining power, 152
- ——, treatment of, 149–151
- “Boils” in foundations, ascertaining character of, 218, 219, 224
- ——, disturbance of soil, 218, 220, 221
- ——, origin and source, 218, 219, 223, 224
- ——, treatment of, 216, 218–225
- “Boils” in foundations, well system of foundations for, 223
- Borings, effect of, 217, 220
- Boulders, 22
- Breakwaters and piers, foundations of, 181, 182
- Brown clay, 13, 42, 43
- Bulging of ground, 147, 148
- ——, of walls, 207, 213
- Burning, slipped earth, 62, 63
- C.
- Canal and similar earthworks.
- ——, admittance of navigation water, 190
- ——, clay and loamy soils, 190
- ——, concrete wall, 193
- ——, consolidation, 190–192
- ——, drawing off water, 188, 196
- ——, failure of, 8, 194–196
- ——, leakage in, 189
- ——, peat and bog, 187
- ——, precautions, 190, 193
- ——, preparation of foundations, 191
- ——, protection of surfaces, 188, 192–194
- ——, puddle wall, when objectionable, 192
- ——, sand, 187
- ——, selection of earth, 191, 192
- ——, —— location, 146, 190
- ——, time of occurrence of slips, 190
- Catchwater drains, 76, 77
- Causes of slips and subsidences in earth.
- ——, principal, 8
- Causes of slips and subsidences in earth, universality, 1
- ——, variety of, 1
- ——, water, the chief cause, 8
- Causes of slips in cuttings and embankments, enumeration thereof, 2–8
- Chalk, absorption of, 29
- ——, affinity for water, 28
- ——, angle of friction of water in, 28, 29
- ——, characteristics of, 30
- ——, classification for earthwork purposes, 31, 32
- ——, cohesion of, 31
- ——, cuttings in, 33
- ——, difficulty of draining, 29
- ——, discharge of water in, 29–30
- ——, faults, crevices and pot-holes, 28
- ——, flints in, 28
- ——, magnitude of many slips in, 32
- ——, mutability of, 29
- ——, non-water bearing, 30–31
- ——, pressure on, effects of, 33
- ——, safe load upon, argillaceous, 89
- ——, —— white, 89
- ——, separation, danger of, 28
- ——, slopes, 27, 100
- ——, treacherous condition, 31
- ——, —— soil, 13
- ——, treatment of springs in, 29
- ——, tunnel entrances in, 32, 33
- ——, use as drains in other soils, 28
- ——, varieties of, 26, 27
- ——, veins and seams in, 29
- ——, water-bearing level in, 30
- Classification of earths, 23, 36, 46
- Clay, beds of, 41, 42
- ——, characteristics of, 37, 38, 40–43
- ——, classification of, 46
- ——, condition of stability, 39
- ——, contraction of, 38, 39
- ——, expansion of, 37, 38
- ——, fissures and cracks in, 38, 39
- ——, humid, 41
- ——, load upon, blue, 89
- ——, —— damp, 89
- ——, —— diluvial, 89
- ——, —— intermixed beds, 89
- Clay, load upon, muddy, 88
- ——, —— solid, 89
- ——, —— upheaved beds, 89
- ——, —— wet, 88
- ——, —— yellow, 89
- ——, mud mistaken for solid clay, 42, 43
- ——, notes upon, blue, 38, 39
- ——, —— boulder 13, 42, 43
- ——, —— brown, 13, 42, 43
- ——, —— gault, 43
- ——, —— lias, 13, 39
- ——, —— marl, 45, 46
- ——, —— mica in, 43
- ——, —— red, 43
- ——, —— rock, 22
- ——, —— sandy, 39–41
- ——, —— slate, 18
- ——, over-draining it, 39
- ——, protecting the surface of, 40
- ——, slopes, 14, 46–49, 100, 108
- ——, testing character of, 40, 41
- ——, time of slip in, 43
- ——, underground excavation in, 49
- ——, weakness in, 43, 44
- Cohesion of earths, general consideration, 14, 105, 106
- ——, values, 106
- Concrete blocks, slopes of, 101
- Condition of earth, worst, 16
- Configuration of ground, influence of, 18
- Consolidation, soft soil, 148, 149, 153, 154
- Continuous surface, value of, 87
- Counterforts, earth, 57, 58, 61, 121
- ——, in slopes, 119–122
- Covering, nature of, 122, 123
- ——, slope, 122
- Crumbling of the surface, 2
- Crystalline rocks, 21
- Culverts, approaches to, 84, 85
- ——, design of, 85
- ——, failures of, 195
- ——, form, 83, 84
- ——, general considerations, 83, 84
- ——, influence on slips and subsidences in earthwork, 83
- ——, special systems, 85, 86
- Cuttings, causes of slips in, 2–5
- ——, side, 157
- ——, slips in, require separate consideration, 2
- ——, vibration in, 136–141
- D.
- Deposition of embankments.
- ——, effect of, 161
- ——, failure of, 167
- ——, form of tip head, 168
- ——, general, 156, 157, 159
- ——, height of tip, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167
- ——, junction of high embankments, 164, 165
- ——, long lead, 163
- ——, method of, on soft soils, &c., 154, 155
- ——, precautions in the, 157, 158, 161, 162
- ——, preparation of ground, 159, 160
- ——, from side-cutting, 157, 158
- ——, side tipping, 167, 168
- ——, specifications, impracticable, 156, 157
- ——, steam navvy and the, 169, 170
- ——, systems of, 159, 161–164, 166–169
- ——, weather influence, 167
- Depth, influence of, in cuttings, 87
- ——, —— embankments, 87
- ——, —— foundations, 89, 90
- Diluvial soil, safe load upon, 89
- Diversion of land waters, 15
- ——, —— rivers, streams &c., 196, 197. Vide River.
- Dock earthworks.
- ——, ascertaining nature of soil, 198, 199, 208–210, 217, 218
- ——, “Boils” in foundations, 216. Vide “Boils.”
- ——, causes of slips and subsidences in, 3–8
- ——, difficulties of construction, 198–200
- ——, ditches and watercourses, 201
- ——, drainage of site and pumping of water, 202, 203, 216, 224
- ——, execution of, 203, 204
- ——, foundation, 201
- ——, liability to slip, 199–201,204, 205
- ——, location of, 200–202, 216, 217
- ——, pressure of water in, 199, 200
- Dock-walls.
- ——, arched system, 210, 211
- ——, back drainage, 213, 215
- Dock-walls, backing, 214, 215
- ——, bulging, 207, 213
- ——, construction of, 205–207, 211–213
- ——, counterforts to, 212
- ——, jetties as face counterforts, 207, 208
- ——, material, 203, 210
- ——, piles, use of in, 209
- ——, Portland cement concrete wall, 223
- ——, prevention of movement in, 207–212
- ——, repairing a slipped wall, 213, 214
- ——, sliding forward of, 207, 208, 213
- ——, well system of, 223
- Drainage, ballasting, 82
- ——, catchwater drains and ditches, 76, 77
- ——, chalk, 29
- ——, clay, 73–75
- ——, controlling discharge, 74
- ——, counterforts and trench drains, 77–80
- ——, culverts, 83–85
- ——, equable, necessary, 150
- ——, field drains, interception of, 77
- ——, filling of trench drains, 78, 79
- ——, formation, 81, 82
- ——, mixed soils, 72
- ——, number and depth of drains, 75
- ——, object of, 65, 72, 73, 81
- ——, overflowing earthworks, 74, 75
- ——, peat, 77, 149, 150
- ——, sand, 77, 80, 81
- ——, seat of an embankment, 82, 83, 85, 86
- ——, slope drains, 77–80, 111, 112
- ——, soft soils, 73, 149, 150
- ——, spoil banks, 80
- ——, springs, 75, 76, 80, 81
- ——, systems required, 72–77, 80, 81
- ——, well system, 81
- Drifts of snow, protection against, 131–134
- Drift soil, treacherous, 13, 18
- ——, —— upon sidelong ground, 143–145
- E.
- Earths, preservation when loaded, 88
- ——, maximum safe load upon, 87–91
- ——, table of weights of, 92
- ——, treacherous, 13
- ——, universality of slips in, 2
- Effect of a slip, cuttings, 50
- ——, embankments, 50
- ——, influence of depth of cutting and height of embankment, 50, 51
- Embankments, ballast upon, 151
- ——, causes of slips and subsidences, 2, 5–8
- ——, condition of earth, 97
- ——, consolidation of soft soil, 148–151, 153–155
- ——, consolidation by time, 17
- ——, deposition of, 156–159, 161–9
- ——, deposition, from side cutting, 157, 158
- ——, depositing upon soft soil, 154, 155, 168, 169
- ——, deterioration of excavated earth, 93, 94
- ——, drainage of the seat of, 160, 161
- ——, failure of, 167
- ——, fascine mattress bed, 155
- ——, forming, 158
- ——, height, safe, 91, 92
- ——, —— of tip, 164–167
- ——, high, 95
- ——, homogeneousness, 158
- ——, junction of, precautions, 164, 165
- ——, long lead, 163
- ——, precautions in deposition, 157–159, 161–163
- ——, preparation of ground, 159–161
- ——, safe maximum heights of, 94–96
- ——, safe load upon, 88, 93, 94
- ——, sidelong ground, 142, 143, 145
- ——, side tipping, 167, 168
- Embankments.
- ——, soft soil, 147–149
- ——, specifications, impracticable, 156, 157
- ——, steam navvy, influence of, 169, 170
- ——, systems of deposition, 159, 161–169
- Embankments, tip head, form of, 168
- ——, vibration, effects of, 136–141
- ——, weather influence during deposition, 167
- Estuary or shore embankments.
- ——, closure of, 177
- ——, deposition of, 176–177
- ——, design, 171–173
- ——, effect of erection, 173, 179, 180
- ——, excavation for, 176, 177, 187
- ——, height, 179
- ——, material, 187
- ——, pressures, calculations showing changes of 182–187
- ——, protection of slope, 174–180
- ——, shore deposit protection, 176, 177
- ——, site, 171
- ——, slope, form of, 174, 180
- ——, trestle work, and on sea-shore, 180
- ——, viaducts and, 172, 173, 180
- F.
- Fascine covering of slopes, 128, 129, 178, 179
- Field drains, interception of, 77
- Fissures in slopes, 127, 128
- Flint, beds in chalk, 28
- Flood-waters, protection against, 57
- Foot of slope, general considerations, 115
- ——, protection and preservation, 115–131
- Formation, special form of, 159
- Formation width, ballast, 151
- ——, influence of, 134, 135
- ——, junction of embankments, 136
- ——, lateral settlement, 135
- ——, severe climates, 134, 135
- ——, sidelong ground, 143
- ——, temperate climates, 135
- ——, value of width, 134, 135
- ——, wet cuttings, 134
- “Forming” embankments, 158
- Friable rock, slopes, 24
- ——, chalk, slopes, 27
- Friction of earths, effects of water on, 103
- ——, general considerations, 101–103, 105, 106
- Friction of earths, necessity of relying upon, 105, 106
- ——, relation to slope, 102
- ——, table of slopes calculated from coefficient of friction, 104
- G.
- Glacial deposits, treacherous, 18
- Gneiss, slopes, 23
- Granite, slopes, 23
- Grass, covering slope with, 122–124
- Gravel, angularity and roundness of particles, 36
- ——, ascertaining character of, 36
- ——, boulder, and gravel and sand, safe load upon, 89
- ——, capability of subsidence, 35
- ——, classification for earthwork purposes, 36
- ——, compact, safe load upon, 89
- ——, counterforts, 119
- ——, interstices in, 35
- ——, slopes, 37, 100, 101, 106, 107
- Ground, configuration of, 18
- Groynes, protecting slopes by, 174–176
- H.
- Height, of embankments, 91–97
- ——, influence of length on safe, 95
- ——, influence of nature and condition of earth, 97
- ——, limit of, in embankments, 91–96
- ——, table of approximate safe maximum heights for different earths, 94–96
- ——, usual limitations, 94, 95
- I.
- Igneous rocks, slopes, 23
- Impairing elements, variableness of, 1
- Inclined beds, danger in rock, 20, 21, 26
- Instability, earth’s crust, 1
- Irrigation earthworks, special causes of slips and subsidences, 187. Vide Estuary Embankments.
- J.
- Jetties, as counterforts to dock walls, 207, 208
- ——, foundations of, 181, 182
- Junction, of high embankments, 136, 164, 165
- L.
- Land drains, cause of slips, 15
- Land waters, diversion of, 15
- Lateral settlement, in embankments, 135, 136
- Lead, effect of long, 163
- Lengths, short excavated lengths, when necessary, 33, 143, 203, 204, 225
- Limestone, 18, 24, 25
- Load on earth, continuous surface, 87
- ——, detached portions, 87
- ——, experiments to ascertain safe, 87, 88
- ——, influence of area, 87
- ——, influence of normal load, 90, 91
- ——, safe, 87–90
- Loamy soils, slopes, 37
- ——, safe load, 89
- Location of earthworks, configuration of ground, 10, 12, 146
- ——, drift soil, 9, 11, 146
- ——, obstructing drainage, etc., by embankment, 9–11
- ——, river near to, 10
- ——, river and stream diversions, 10
- ——, road, near to, 10
- ——, road approaches, 11
- ——, stations, position of, 10
- ——, trestles or solid embankment, 12
- ——, tunnels or cuttings, 11
- ——, valley or hill-side line, 11
- ——, valley, stable side of, 10
- ——, valley, sunny or wooded side, 11
- ——, wetter side of a hill, 12
- Loose chalk, 27
- Loose rock, 24
- M.
- Maintenance, soft ground, 151
- Marly chalk, slopes, 27
- Marly soils, characteristics of, 44–46
- ——, difficulty of draining, 46
- ——, safe load upon, 89
- ——, slopes, 100
- Marsh earth, slope, 100
- Marsh land, safe load upon, 88
- Metalling, slope, 101
- Mica-schist, hardness of, etc., 24
- ——, quantity of quartz in it, 24
- Mixtures of earth, troublesome, 20
- Moraine, treacherous soil, 18
- Morass, safe load upon, 88
- Mud, consolidated, slope, 100
- Mutability, of the created elements, 1
- N.
- Normal load, influence of, 89–91
- Normal pressure, consideration of, 91
- Number of drains, 75
- O.
- Object of, drainage, 72, 73, 74, 81
- Obstruction, of drainage by embankment, 9, 10, 11
- Open trestle work versus embankments, 180
- Overflow, drainage by, 75
- P.
- Peat moss, safe load upon, 88
- Peat soil, consolidation of, 153, 154
- ——, drainage of, 149–151
- ——, nature of, 152, 153
- ——, necessary test, 151, 152
- ——, sustaining power of, 151, 152
- Peat turf, slope, 100
- Percolation of water, overflow and requisite pumping, 69, 70
- ——, chalk, 70, 71
- ——, clay soils, 70
- ——, cuttings and embankments, 65–67
- ——, effect of, 66–69
- ——, excavated earth, 70
- Percolation of water, fissures, 69–71
- ——, loamy soils, 70–72
- ——, marly clays, 70
- Percolation of water, maximum, 66, 68
- ——, principles of, 67–72
- ——, regulation of, 65, 66
- ——, sand, 71
- ——, top soil, 70
- Piers, foundations of, 181, 182
- Pitching, on unequally consolidated soil, 131
- ——, precautions respecting, 130–131
- ——, protection of slope by, 129, 130
- ——, when necessary, 129, 130
- Porphyry, slope, 23
- Pressure, normal, on earth, 91
- Probability of a slip, 13–18
- Protective works, burning the slipped earth, 62, 63
- ——, cover shed and catch trenches, 59, 60
- ——, different methods necessary, 52–60
- ——, earth counterforts, 57, 58, 61, 121
- ——, enumeration of, 53–55
- ——, exceptional, 55, 57, 58
- ——, flexible v. rigid drains, 56
- ——, flood waters, 57
- ——, general principles, 55–58
- ——, object of, 52
- ——, salifiable earth, 59
- ——, slopes, general considerations, 115–117
- ——, trickling of surface soil, 58
- ——, turf and plant, 122–124
- ——, weighting the foot of, 119
- ——, when drainage alone required, 56
- ——, when required, 52
- ——, where to commence drainage operations, 56
- Q.
- Quartz, slope, 23
- Quicksand, safe load upon, 88
- R.
- Rainfall, influence of, 15, 16
- Rammed earth counterforts, 61, 121
- ——, thickness of layers, 120
- Reclamation embankments. Vide Estuary Embankments.
- ——, special causes of slips in, 8
- Removal of slipped earth, general considerations and treatment, 60–64
- Repairing slope, 121
- Reservoir embankments, 187, etc. Vide Canals.
- Retaining walls, desirability, 117, 118, 146
- ——, draining back of, 117
- ——, failure of, when probable, 118
- ——, form, 118, 119
- ——, protection to slope, 115–119
- River banks. Vide Canals, 187, and
- ——, ——, Estuary Embankments.
- ——, protected v. unprotected slopes, 48, 49
- ——, slopes of, 48
- ——, tree protection of, 126, 127
- River diversions, 196, 197
- Road metalling, slope, 101
- Rock, ascertaining character of, 18–21
- ——, character, etc., 18–22
- ——, classification for earthwork purposes, 23
- ——, crystalline, 21
- ——, examination of, 19
- ——, general consideration, 18–26
- ——, inclined beds, 20, 21, 26
- ——, mica schist, 24
- ——, nature of some, 21, 22
- ——, safe load upon, 90, 91
- ——, sandstone, 90
- ——, schistose, 24
- ——, slopes, friable, 24
- ——, ——, loose, 24
- ——, ——, sedimentary, 23
- ——, stratified, 18–20
- ——, treacherous condition of, 8, 9
- ——, unevenness of surface, 18, 19
- ——, unstratified, 18
- ——, variation of character, 18, 19
- ——, water levels in, 24
- Rubble mound, safe load upon, 91
- ——, slope, 101
- S.
- Salifiable earth, 59
- Sandstone, 19, 22, 25
- Sandstone, slope, 23, 24
- ——, in tropical climates, 25
- Sand, absorption of water, 34
- Sand, angularity v. roundness of particles, 36
- ——, capability of subsidence, 35
- ——, compact, safe load upon, 89
- ——, delicate state of some, 34
- ——, drainage of, 34
- ——, drawing away of, 33
- ——, excavating in short lengths, 33, 143, 203, 204
- ——, firm, safe load upon, 89
- ——, interstices in, 35
- ——, light sand, protection of, 123–125
- ——, loose sand, safe load upon, 89
- ——, mutability of condition, 34
- ——, sand “boils” in foundations, Vide “Boils.”
- ——, silty, safe load upon, 89
- ——, slopes of repose, 36, 37, 100, 106, 107
- ——, soft sand rock, 90
- ——, springs in, 33
- ——, superficial beds of, 89
- ——, when likely to slip, 34
- Sandy clay, 39, 40
- Schistose rock, 24
- Seat of embankment, drainage, 160
- Setting out, with reference to earthwork, 9–12
- Settlement, lateral, of an embankment, 135
- ——, provision against in slopes, 125, 126
- Shales, characteristics of, 20, 21, 44
- ——, iron pyrites in, 44
- ——, safe load upon, 89
- ——, slopes, 21, 100
- Shore embankments. Vide Estuary Embankments.
- Sidelong ground, cuttings and embankments upon, 142–146
- ——, depositing embankments upon, 145, 146
- ——, excavating in short lengths, 33, 143, 203, 204, 225
- ——, object of precautionary works, 142–145
- ——, precautions, 142–146
- ——, when inclined rock, 146
- ——, when especially treacherous, 144–146
- ——, varying the slope, 146
- Silt, safe load upon, 88
- ——, slope, 100
- ——, treacherous, 18
- Slake, safe load upon, 88
- Slate rock, 21
- Slipped earth, treatment and removal of, 60–64
- Slips in canals, special causes, 8, 187
- —— time of occurrence, 190, etc.
- —— docks of occurrence, 187
- —— drainage works, 187
- —— irrigation works, 187
- —— reclamation works, 187
- —— waterworks, 187
- Slips in cuttings, causes of, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8
- ——, embankments, causes of, 5–8
- Slips, immediate action necessary, 61
- Slopes, bare, when can be left, 125
- ——, cess upon, 111, 113, 114
- ——, counterfort at foot of, 119–122
- ——, curved, 109–111
- ——, disturbance of, 111, 112
- ——, fascine covering, 128, 129
- ——, fissures in, treatment of, 127–128
- ——, flat, should not be too, 98
- ——, form of, 107–108, 110, 111
- ——, general considerations, 98–99, 105–110
- ——, nature of covering, 122–131
- ——, object of protection, 119, 122
- ——, permanent, of earth, 98–101, 106–109, 146
- ——, precautions concerning tree protection, 126, 127
- ——, protection and preservation, general considerations and different systems, 115–131
- ——, protection against burrowing animals and crustacea, 127
- ——, protection of light sand, 123–125
- ——, protective coverings, 122–129
- ——, provision against settlement, 125, 126
- ——, range of slopes in different earths, 100, 101
- ——, repairing, 61–64, 121, 122
- ——, sand veins in, 120
- ——, steepest, 112, 113
- Slopes, stone pitching upon, 129–131
- ——, terraced, 111
- ——, time to trim, 125
- ——, trees and shrubs upon, protection by, 126, 127
- ——, trench drains in, 77, 78, 111, 112, 121
- ——, trimmed as excavated, 111
- ——, turfing, grass and plant protection, 122–127
- ——, varying the form of, 109, 110, 111
- ——, walls, 117–119
- Snow-drifts, prevention of, protection against, 131–134
- Soft soil, consolidation of, 153, 154
- ——, depositing embankments upon, 154, 155
- ——, drainage, 73, 149–151
- ——, embankments upon, 147–149
- ——, equable drainage necessary, 150
- ——, influence of ballast on formation, 151
- ——, sustaining power of, 151, 152
- ——, testing, 148, 149, 152
- Springs in chalk, treatment of, 29
- Subsidence, capability of sand, 35
- —— in soft ground, 151
- Subsidences in embankments, causes of, 5–8
- T.
- Time of occurrence, slips, 13–17
- ——, usual, 15–17
- ——, submerged and unsubmerged work, 17, 189
- Trap rock, slopes, 23
- Treacherous earths, 13, 204, 217
- Tree protection, general, 16, 126
- ——, precautions concerning, 126, 127
- ——, slopes, 126, 127
- Trickling of surface soil, 58
- Trimming slopes, 111, 125
- Tunnels, entrances of, in chalk, 32
- Turfing slopes, 122–126
- U.
- Universality of slips, 1, 2
- Unstable soils, 13, 204, 217
- Upheaval of ground, 147, 148
- V.
- Variableness of, impairing elements, 1
- Variety of causes of slips and subsidences, 1
- Viaduct, versus embankment, 171–173, 179, 180
- Vibration, in cuttings and embankments, 136, 137
- ——, deteriorating influence of, 136–141
- ——, effect on earths, 136, 137
- ——, influence of, 8, 9
- ——, lateral pressure and, 137
- ——, test of effects, 141
- W.
- Water, the chief cause of deterioration of earth, 8
- Water-bearing level, 14, 24
- Waterwork earthworks, special causes of slips and subsidences in, 8, 187. Vide Canals, etc.
- Water pressure in cuttings, 14
- Weights of different earths, 92
- Widening works, consideration respecting slopes, 112–114
- ——, steepening the slopes, 112–114
- Y.
- Yellow-clay, 43, 89