Ecclesiastical Vestments: Their development and history

The following appendix does not profess to furnish more than an outline of the extensive subject with which it deals; for further details, as well as for illustrations of members of each of the orders, reference must be made to the great work of Bonanni, cited in Appendix III. Bonanni names the different habits rather loosely; in the main his nomenclature has been followed, but brought to a more uniform system.

Monks.

The dress of monks usually consists of the vestis, tunic or closed gown; the scapular, roughly speaking, a narrow, chasuble-like dress, with the front and back portions rectangular and of uniform width throughout; one or more open gowns (pallium or cappa); and the caputium or hood, fastened at the back and capable of being drawn over the head. 'Discalced' is not always to be taken in its fullest significance, or as signifying more than simply 'sandaled.' Different vestments are worn by individual orders or houses; the nature of these will be self-evident from their names.

1. Alexians.—Black vestis and pallium, both reaching a little below the knee: caputium.

2. Ambrose, St.—Dark-coloured gown with cappa and scapular. Discalced.

3. Antonius, St (Armenia).—Ample black tunic, girded, mantellum, cuculla, and caputium.

4. Antonius, St (Canons of).—Black gown signed with a blue T; girded white collar, black mantle, also signed with T. Others, who are devoted to manual labour, wear a similar dress, but tawny in colour. The T is a representation of a crutch, the symbol of sustaining and power.

5. Antonius, St (Egypt).—Black tunic and scapular, with round caputium. Discalced.

6. Antonius, St (Syria).—Long black gown with short round caputium, black leather girdle; over all, long black mantle.

7. Apostoli.—Tawny tunic with girdle of leather, scapular with caputium attached. Cappa, and in winter short and narrow mantellum.

8. Aubert, St (Canons regular of; Cambrai).—Violet cassock, and cap or biretta: white surplice.

9. Augustine, St.—Black tunic girded, black cape and hood. White may be worn indoors.

10. Avellanans.—White tunic, scapular, azure pallium, square biretta in place of mantellum.

11. Basil, St (Armenia).—Tunic and caputium white, scapular black.

12. Basil, St (Germany).—Tunic, long scapular, long broad cappa, caputium on shoulder, and a biretta on head in outline resembling the 'Tam o' Shanter' cap.

13. Basil, St (Greece).—Black woollen tunic, over which another with sleeves about three palms wide, open in front, with woollen fringes or loops of another (but still dark) colour, which can be fastened with small buttons. Head always covered with a cap, which conceals the ears. Caputium with vittae or streamers attached, which hang over the shoulders, and are said to typify the cross.

14. Basil, St (Italy or Spain).—Till 1443 resembling the Greek dress (No. 13). After that date, tunic, leather girdle, scapular, cuculla, caputium—all black.

15. Basil, St (Russia).—Like Greece (No. 13), with the addition of a small cuculla.

16. Benedict, St (St Justina of Padua).—Black woollen tunic to which a caputium is sewn. Scapular; cuculla from shoulder to feet with very wide sleeves.

17. Benedict, St (Clugniacs).—Black cappa clausa with rude sleeves or hood.

18. Benedict, St (India).—Black tunic somewhat short, white scapular, mantle, and caputium.

19. Bethlehemites.—Black woollen tunic with leather girdle; cappa, on left side of which a pannula with a representation of the manger at Bethlehem. Discalced. Black cap on head.

20. Birgitta, St.—Gray tunic and cuculla, to which a caputium is sewn, gray mantellum, signed with red cross, having a white roundle or plate at the centre.

21. Caelestines.—White, black caputium and scapular.

22. Camaldulenses (Hermits).—White woollen tunic, scapular and round caputium; cuculla (also white) in service. Black shoes.

23. Camaldulenses (Monks).—As Benedictines, but white, and the scapular is girded round the loins. Tunic with very wide sleeves, caputium, etc.

24. Capuchins.—Rough black woollen tunic girded with coarse rope; hood and cape. Discalced.

25. Carmelites.—Tunic, girdle, scapular, caputium, brown; cappa or mantle white. Hat on head black, except in Mantua, where it is white.

26. Carmelites a Monte Sacro.—Cappa shorter than that of the other Carmelites, and no cap on head at any time.

27. Carthusians.—Black woollen pallium, over which white gown passed over the head, and scapular with side loops.

28. Cistercians.—Benedict XII decreed brown as the Cistercian colour; but there was an uncertainty as to the interpretation of this decree; some, alleging that gray or black were included in the term 'brown,' wore those colours. To remedy this confusion, Sixtus IV decreed black or white: black caputium and scapular girded round loins; black cuculla added out of doors. In choir white.

29. Cistercians (Fogliantino).—Like the Benedictines in shape, white in colour. Formerly discalced everywhere, now only in France. Black wooden sandals worn in Italy.

30. Cistercians (La Trappe).—White cuculla with ample sleeves, girded; caputium.

31. Chariton, St.—Lion-coloured tunic, with black cuculla and caputium.

32. Choors (Canons regular of; Bordeaux).—White woollen vestis, white linen scapular; linen cotta in choir. Almuce, worn over the arms in summer, round the neck in winter.

33. Coloriti (Calabria).—Long tunic, with round caputium and mantellum from rough black natural wool; woollen girdle.

34. Columba, St (Avellana).—White woollen tunic or caputium, over which a scapular; a narrow pallium added out of doors.

35. Cross, St (Canons regular of; Coimbra).—Cassock, surplice, and almuce; the ordinary canonical dress.

36. Crucifers (Italy).—Blue tunic (formerly ash-coloured, or uncertain), scapular, and hood. Silver cross constantly borne in the hand.

37. Crucifers (Belgium).—White tunic, scapular, and caputium; black mozetta, signed in front with a red and white cross.

38. Crucifers (Lusitania).—Blue tunic, over which gown, mozetta and hood. A pallium added out of doors.

39. Crucifers (Syria).—Black.

40. Dionysius, St (Canons regular of; Rheims).—Long surplice, over which (in winter) a cappa clausa without armholes. Biretta. Almuce worn over arm.

41. Dominic, St.—Tunic, scapular, and broad round caputium of white wool. Black cappa, shorter than the tunic, added out of doors.

42. Fontis Ebraldi (Fontevraud).—Black tunic girded, scapular, caputium.

43. Francis, St.—Ash-coloured tunic girded with a cord divided by three knots; round caputium and mozetta.

44. Francis, St (de observantia).—Woollen tunic girded with cord; cape, hood; colour formed by mixture of two parts of black wool to one of white. Discalced, in wooden or leathern sandals.

45. Franciscans (of St Peter of Alcantara).—Rough and patched tunic girded with cord; cape and hood. Feet entirely unprotected.

46. Francis de Paul, St (Fratres minimi).—Woollen tunic, dark tawny colour with round caputium, whose ends hang below the loins before and behind, both girded by a rope, the free end of which is knotted with five knots (novices knot three knots only). Pallium reaching a little below the knees, worn in winter both indoors and out. Formerly discalced, with sandals of various materials; afterwards, however, this practice was dispensed with.

47. Genovefa, St (Canons regular of).—White vestis and rochet, black biretta, fur almuce over left arm. In winter a long black pallium is added to the vestis and rochet, and a black caputium or hood.

48. George in Alga, St (Canons regular of).—Cassock, over which a blue gown.

49. Gilbert, St (Canons regular of).—Black cassock and hood, and surplice lined with lamb's wool. Linen cappa added at service.

50. Gramontans.—Any dress, very rough. The 'reformed' dress is a rough white linen tunic, over which another, thinner, of black; scapular and caputium.

51. Hermits (Egypt).—Tawny tunic, black pallium.

52. Hippolytus St, (Brothers of Mercy of).—Brownish tunic, scapular, hood.

53. Humiliati.—White tunic, scapular, mantle, cape, and cap.

54. James, St (Canons regular of; Spada).—White woollen vestis and rochet.

55. Jerome, St (Hermits of).—White woollen tunic, scapular with round caputium, cappa open in front: all black wool.

56. Jerome, St (Hermits of; foundation of Lupo Olmedo).—White tunic girt with black leather girdle round loins; small round caputium and tawny cuculla. Black biretta worn at home.

57. Jerome, St (Hermits of; foundation of Peter Gambacorta).—Tawny tunic girded with leather girdle, tawny crimped cappa, round and narrow caputium, square black biretta.

58. Jerome, St (Fiesole).—Tawny woollen vestis with crimped cappa open in front. Leather girdle. Discalced; wooden sandals, afterwards abandoned.

59. Jesuati.—White tunic, square caputium, gray cappa (after 1367). A white appendage, like a sleeve, worn instead of caputium, changed by Urban VIII for a caputium of the same colour as the mantle.

60. Johannis Dei, St.—Dark ash-coloured tunic with scapular reaching to knees;[104] round, pointless caputium. Black cap added out of doors.

61. John, St (Canons regular of; Chartres).—White vestis and rochet; almuce over left shoulder.

62. John, St (Hermits of; de Pœnitentia).—Rough woollen cloth, tunic and cappa with hood, feet entirely unprotected, heavy wooden cross suspended in front from neck.

63. John Baptist, St (Canons regular of; England).—Black or brown vestis, scapular, cappa clausa, and mantle, all signed with a black cross.

64. Klosterneuburg (Canons regular of; Austria).—White surplice and black cappa, for which latter an almuce is substituted on festival days.

65. Lirinenses (Lerina Island, Tuscany).—Tunic and mantle girded with scarf, over this sleeved cappa aperta with small caputium: all black.

66. Lo, St (Canons regular of; Rouen).—Violet cappa, violet mozetta or cape, and hood in winter; white cassock and rochet.

67. Macharius, St (Egypt).—Violet tunic, black scapular, small cuculla; cap on head covering hair, forehead, temples, and ears.

68. Mark, St (Canons regular of; Mantua).—White woollen vestis, rochet, pallium, for which latter a mozetta is substituted in choir and a white biretta added. Sheepskin almuce on left arm.

69. Martin, St (Esparnai [Aspreniacum, Campania]).—Vestis talaris of white, above which a sarrocium or scorligium, which is a species of rochet, described by Mauburnus.[105]

70. Mary, St (de Mercede Redemptionis Captivorum).—White tunic, scapula, short caputium, and cappa. A small shield bearing party per fess in chief gules a cross pattée argent in base three pallets (the base charge is the arms of the Kingdom of Arragon), is worn in front.

71. Mary, St (de Mercede Redemptionis Captivorum, another dress).—In this the caputium is prolonged and the feet discalced.

72. Mary, St (Servants of).—Coarse tunic, scapular, cappa and hood: all black.

73. Maurice, St (Canons regular of).—Cassock, rochet, purple cape or mozetta, biretta.

74. Monte Luca (Hermits of).—Tunic, short chasuble-like scapular, mantle and hood and cap or hat, the latter optional; all tawny colour. Some are discalced, others with shoes or sandals.

75. Monte Senario (Hermits of).—Black tunic, scapular, pallium extending below knees, caputium.

76. Monte Vergine (in Avellina; monks of).—Tunic, scapular, and cuculla; out of doors pallium and cap substituted for cuculla. All white.

77. Olivetans.—White vestis with wide sleeves, caputium crispatum on shoulder.

78. Pachomius, St.—White woollen tunic and cuculla, the latter signed with a violet cross.

79. Pamplona (Canons regular of).—Cassock, alb, sleeveless rochet, ash-coloured mozetta.

80. Paul, St (Hermits).—White woollen vestis, rather short, with short mantellum over, and short caputium; discalced.

81. Paul, St (Monks).—White tunic sleeved, caputium, and collar round shoulders. Out of doors, black cap and cloak (white in Hungary).

82. Peter, St (Canons regular of; Monte Corbulo).—At first gray cassock and rochet, and almuce or caputium; after 1521 black cassock, white-sleeved rochet, and black cloak.

83. Poland (Canons regular of).—White tunic and linen surplice reaching to about the knees, fur almuce about shoulders, dark-coloured skull-cap of wool edged with fur.

84. Portugal (Canons regular of).—White rochet and tunic, tawny almuce, and pallium.

85. Premonstratensians.—White tunic and scapular, sewn up in front, white sleeveless cappa without girdle, white biretta, almuce, white shoes. (The white is all natural, not dyed.)

86. Rouen (Canons regular of the Priory of the Two Lovers).—White tunic or alb and rochet, almuce.

87. Rufus, St (Canons regular of; France).—White cassock buttoned up in front, white girdle, black biretta.

88. Sabba, St.—Tawny tunic girded, with black scapular. Discalced.

89. Saviour, St (Canons regular of; Laterans).—White buttoned cassock, linen rochet. Out of doors black pallium and biretta.

90. Saviour, St (Canons regular of; Lorraine).—Black tunic with little linen rochet hanging down from the neck to the left side, five inches broad, like a girdle, over which in choir a cotta, and gray almuce carried on the arm in summer; in winter a full sleeveless rochet with cappa reaching to the ankles of black linen, whose front edges are decorated with red cloth about a foot wide. Caputium, whose front edge surrounds the face like an almuce, with fur about two inches wide.

91. Saviour, St (Canons regular of; Sylva Lacus Selva).—White woollen tunic, rochet and scapular, black cappa.

92. Sepulchre, the Holy (Canons regular of).—White rochet, black cappa and caputium. At the left side of the cappa a Greek cross cantoned by crosslets in red.

93. Sepulchre, the Holy (Canons regular of; Bohemia, Poland, Russia).—Black vestis and rochet, over which a mantelletum—a waistcoat or rochet-like vestment, sleeveless, but rather long, open in front, and reaching to a little above the knees—on the left side of which a double-transomed cross.

94. Sylvester, St.—Tunic, caputium, scapular, cuculla of blue. Biretta worn on sacred occasions.

95. Trinitatis, SS (Redemptionis Captivorum).—White tunic, scapular, and cappa, with red and blue cross flory on the scapular and left side of the cappa.

96. Trinitatis, SS (Redemptionis Captivorum; Spain).—Cappa brown, otherwise as above described. By others in Spain a tawny cappa is worn, and the feet are discalced. Round black caputium added.

97. Trinitatis, SS (Redemptionis Captivorum; France).—All white, the cross plain; feet discalced; caputium also white.

98. Usetz (Canons regular of).—White buttoned tunic and surplice, extinguisher-shaped, like the ancient chasuble.

99. Valle de Choux (Burgundy, between Dijon and Autun, Canons regular of).—White, black scapular, girded with black girdle.

100. Valle Ronceaux (Canons regular of).—Black, with white scapular, very small, and resembling archiepiscopal pall. Black cappa added in service.

101. Valle di Scholari (Canons regular of).—White woollen tunic and scapular; black cappa lined with lamb's wool, biretta.

102. Valley of Jehoshaphat (Canons regular of).—Full red cuculla and caputium.

103. Vallis Viridis (near Brussels; Canons regular of).—Black tunic and cassock, white rochet, black caputium.

104. Vallumbrosans.—Identical with the Sylvestrines, but grayish-black instead of blue.

105. Victor, St, Without the Walls (Canons regular of; Paris).—White tunic and wide-sleeved surplice, almuce, biretta.

106. Vindesheim (Canons regular of).—White tunic and rochet, biretta, fur almuce added on shoulders in winter.

107. William, St (Hermits of).—Tunic, over which another sleeveless, girded. Scapular, feet entirely unprotected. At first white, but black after union with the Augustinians.

Nuns.

The dress of nuns, as a general rule, consists of a vestis (gown or tunic), girt at the waist, and a scapular. To these various orders add pallia, mantella, etc., as will appear from the following list. As a general rule, a white gremial or breast-cloth is fastened over the head and round the throat and breast; over this two loose vela or cloths are placed on the head, the inner white, the outer black. The feet, even of 'discalced' nuns, are protected at least by wooden, bark, or leathern sandals; very rarely are the feet entirely unprotected.

1. Acemetae (or Vigilants).—Uncertain; according to some authorities, green vestis, signed with a red cross, above which a mantellum or cape. Black velum on head.

2. Agnes, St (Dordrecht).—White vestis and scapular, black velum on head, ruff round neck.

3. Ambrose, St.—White, black velum on head.

4. Angelica, St (Milan).—White vestis and scapular, cross on breast, ring on finger, with cross in place of a jewel.

5. Antonius, St (Syria).—No definite rule, any dress suitable to monastic life.

6. Augustine, St (Solitaries of, 1256).—Black; Gregory IX gave licence to wear white, with black scapular and velum on head.

7. Augustine, St (ancient habit).—Black tunic, white linen rochet, on head a cloth, ornamented with semée of red crosses, reaching down the back like a cloak or cope.

8. Augustine, St (discalced; Spain).—Similar to the corresponding monks, but with the usual vela on the head.

9. Augustine, St (discalced; Lusitania).—White vestis (to which a black vestis is added on feast days) girded with black leather girdle, white scapular, black mantellum; on the head a rough white linen cloth hanging before the face to the eyes, but behind to the waist. On this white cloth another, black, about five palms in breadth.

10. Augustine, St (Penitents of).—Black vestis and cappa, reaching to knees; scapular white; face covered with a black veil.

11. Augustine, St (Venice).—White; black veil on face.

12. Basil, St (Eastern).—Natural (undyed) black dress; black mafors (narrow scapular-like pallium); gloves or sleeves covering the arms and hands as far as the fingers; black velum covering the whole head.

13. Basil, St (Western).—As in the East till 1560. After that date, black vestis, scapular and velum reaching from head to knees; black gremial or breast-cloth. A cassock with ample sleeves added for church services.

14. Begga, St (Antwerp).—Black vestis, black pallium from head downwards, a cap (biretta), resembling in outline an inverted saucer, on head white velum round head and across breast.

15. Benedict, St.—As monks, but with velum in place of caputium.

16. Benedict, St (de Monte Calvario).—White tunic and scapular, with black velum on head. Discalced.

17. Birgitta, St.—White camisia, gray tunic, cuculla with sleeves reaching to tip of middle finger, gray mantellum. On the head a 'garland' or 'wreath' concealing the forehead and cheeks, and secured at the back of the head by a pin. On this is placed a black velum fastened by three pins, one on the forehead and one over each ear. Above this is a corona of white cloth consisting of a Greek cross passing over the head from forehead to back and from ear to ear, the ends joined by a circle that passes round the temples. At each of the intersections of the cross arms with each other and with the circle is fastened a small piece (gutta) of red cloth—the total of five doubtless typical of the Five Wounds.

18. Caesarius, St.—White vestis, girded; black velum on head.

19. Calatiavans.—White; white scapular signed with red cross flory, usual white and black vela on head.

20. Camaldulenses.—White; scapular confined with white girdle; usual vela on head.

21. Canonesses regular (Belgium, Lorraine, etc.).—White tunic girt at waist, mantle over; black velum on head; a rochet is worn in some houses.

22. Canonesses regular (Rouen).—Originally white; now black tunic, black mantellum lined and edged with white mouse-fur; black and white vela disposed as usual on head.

23. Canonesses (Mons).—Black vestis with white sleeves; black velum on head reaching down back half-way; pallium or mantle on shoulder hanging to ground, black lined with white. In church service the dress consists of white linen surplice or cassock reaching to feet, braided with a cord sewn upon it arranged in ornamental knots and scrolls; peaked head-dress, from the point of which hangs a long pendant streamer. Pallium or mantle of black silk, lined with mouse-fur, white with black spots.

24. Capuchins.—Rough woollen vestis, scapular, mantellum, white gremial cloth, black and white vela on head.

25. Carmelites (ancient).—Tawny tunic, short white pallium or mantle, white velum encircling head.

26. Carmelites (modern).—Tawny tunic and scapular, white pallium reaching to feet, usual vela on head.

27. Carmelites (France).—Brown habit, white mantellum lined with fur, white gremial cloth covering head and breast, black velum above this.

28. Carmelites (discalced).—Like ordinary Carmelites, but with somewhat long cappa of coarse cloth; two black vela on head; feet shod with woollen cloth and bark sandals.

29. Carthusians.—White tunic and scapular; cloth on neck and breast, usual velamina on head.

30. Cassian.—White tunic and linen rochet, with black velum on head.

31. Cistercians.—White; gray (sometimes black) scapular, girded; in choir a white cuculla added.

32. Clugniacs.—Black tunic, girded; ample scapular, also black; usual vela on head.

33. Columbanus, St.—White tunic, cuculla, gremial cloth, and velum on head.

34. Cross, St (Penitents of).—White tunic, over which another, black, girded with leather girdle. White gremial cloth and velum.

35. Dominic, St.—White vestis, girded; scapular; black and white vela on head. In choir or at the Sacrament a cappa is added.

36. Dominic, St (Penitents of).—White tunic and scapular; white gremial cloth and velum, over which a flowing black pallium is placed which hangs down to the feet.

37. Eligius, St.—Black tunic, white mantle, white gremial cloth on head and breast, over which black velum.

38. Fontevraud.—Black tunic, white gremial and velum.

39. Fontevraud (reformed).—Black pallium added to previous dress.

40. Francis of Assisi, St.—Rough tunic girt with a rope, scapular and mantellum; white gremial cloth. Discalced; feet in wooden sandals.

41. Fructuosus, St.—Cuculla, pallium, and tunic, all gray; girdle securing tunic black. Discalced (sandals worn in summer, shoes in winter).

42. Genovefa, St (Canonesses of).—White tunic and surplice, black fur 'almutia,' ornamented with white spots, worn at service over left arm (something like a long maniple). White gremial cloth, and black velum over it on head.

43. Gilbert, St.—Black tunic, mantle, and hood, the last lined with lamb's wool.

44. Hilary, St.—Gray tunic, not long, over which a short tawny pallium; black velum on head, with white band round forehead; shoes with pointed toes turned upward.

45. Hospitalers of St John of Jerusalem.—Tawny tunic with white cross sewn on breast. White velum on head.

46. Hospitalers of St John of Jerusalem (France).—Black vestis signed with a white cross fourchée; pallium with similar cross on left shoulder; white and black vela on head. Fastened to the pallium a rosary divided into eight parts, symbolical of the instruments of the Passion.

47. Hospitalers (Canonesses; Paris).—White vestis, linen rochet, pallium from shoulders to feet, usual vela on head.

48. Hospitalers of the Holy Ghost (Saxony).—Black vestis, with double-transomed cross fourchée in white on the left side of breast. Usual vela on head.

49. Humiliati (Milan).—White tunic girded; loose white scapular; white velum.

50. Infant Jesus, Virgins of.—Woollen vestis of dark tawny colour. On certain days black velum on head reaching nearly to feet.

51. Isidore, St.—Uncertain; probably gray tunic and cappa with hood. Discalced.

52. James, St, de Spatha.—Black vestis with red cross flory fichée on the right on the breast. White cappa reaching to feet. Usual vela on head.

53. Jerome, St.—White tunic, gray scapular, black pallium, black velum on head.

54. Jesuatae.—White tunic and brown scapular; cappa of the same colour added at service. Usual vela on head.

55. Lateran Canonesses Regular.—White tunic and rochet; white gremial cloth over head and breast, over which black velum. A wide-sleeved surplice added for service.

56. Laurence, St (Venice).—Black vestis with white velum on head, not altogether covering the hair. A long flowing cassock added for a service-robe, and a long black velum placed over the white velum.

57. Macharius, St.—Tawny vestis with black cappa, or a sheepskin over it.

58. Malta, Knights of.—Black tunic and scapular, black pallium, very long and supported over the arms to keep it from the ground; white Maltese cross on left shoulder of pallium. Black and white silk chain hanging from neck supporting wooden images of the instruments of the Passion.

59. Maria, St, in Capitolio (Canonesses of).—Silk vestis, above which a white rochet. Head covered with long black velum reaching to ground. At first a crimped, ruff-like collar round the neck; this was afterwards abandoned.

60. Maria Fuliensis, St.—Rough white vestis; white gremial cloth on head and breast, loosely covered with black velum. Discalced.

61. Mary the Virgin, St, Annunciation of.—Gray tunic, white chlamys or cloak, red cross-shaped scapular, usual head coverings.

62. Mary the Virgin, St, Annunciation of (another order).—White vestis, black girdle, white scapular, blue gown, white gremial on head and breast, black velum.

63. Mary the Virgin, St, Assumption of.—Blue, secured with white girdle, white scapular, white gremial cloth, white velum (very long) on head. In choir a pallium of mixed silk and blue wool is added.

64. Mary the Virgin, St (Canonesses regular of).—Black tunic, over which a long black cappa is girded in choir; usual gremial cloth and vela.

65. Mary the Virgin, St, Daughters of (Cremona).—Black. Resembling the habit of the priests of the Society of Jesus, but with black velum in place of biretta. An extra black velum and an extra black mantle is added out of doors.

66. Maria, Sta (de Mercede Redemptionis Captivorum).—White vestis and scapular; usual vela on head. In centre of breast a shield bearing party per fess in chief gules a cross pattée argent, in base three pallets.

67. Mary the Virgin, St, Servants of.—Same as corresponding monks, with velum instead of caputium. In Germany certain of this order wear a white velum with a blue star on the forehead.

68. Mary the Virgin, St, Seven Sorrows of.—Black woollen vestis and girdle, head and breast with white linen covering, long black head-covering put on out of doors.

69. Mary the Virgin, St, Purification of.—Simple black vestis, white collar and cuffs, black velum on head—much like ordinary mourning dress.

70. Mary the Virgin, St, Visitation of.—Black vestis, pectoral cross of silver with figure and monogram of Christ. Usual vela on head.

71. Mary of the Rosary, St.—Black; image of the Conception, surrounded by a rosary embellished with figures of the instruments of the Passion, on breast; white gremial cloth and white velum on head.

72. Olivetans.—White cuculla and tunic; usual vela on head.

73. Pachomius, St.—Black tunic and gray hood; a row of small white Greek crosses along every edge.

74. Philippines of Rome.—Black woollen tunic, white sleeveless surplice with black cross in centre. Usual vela on head.

75. Premonstratensians.—White vestis and pallium, white scapular girded. On the forehead a cross signed on the white velum.

76. Peter of Alcantaria, St (Solitaries of).—Rough vestis girded with a rope; scapular, mantle, and velum. No covering on head.

77. Sacrament, Adoration of the Most Holy.—Black vestis, black velamen over head and shoulders, golden figure of the Host on breast.

78. Mary the Virgin, St, Presentation of.—Black, white scapular, usual vela on head signed with cross in the centre of the forehead.

79. Sepulchre, Canonesses of the Holy.—Black tunic, over which a white sleeveless surplice reaching to knees. Usual vela on head. Mantellum, on the left shoulder of which is a double transomed cross in red. To the left side are two ropes sewn, knotted together by five knots to typify the Five Wounds.

80. Stephen, St.—White woollen vestis and scapular with red cross fourchée on breast. Usual vela on head. In choir a white cuculla is added with full sleeves of red silk.

81. Sylvester, St.—Similar to monks, but with usual vela on head.

82. Trinitatis, SS (Redemptionis Captivorum).—White vestis and scapular, black pallium. On pallium and scapular a red and blue Greek cross fourchée. Usual vela.

83. Trinity, Most Holy.—White tunic and scapular, tawny cappa signed with Greek cross fourchée in red and blue. Similar cross on scapular. Black sandals.

84. Urbanists.—Blackish vestis and scapular, tawny mantellum at service, white gremial cloth, white and black vela on head.

85. Ursula, St.—Black vestis girded with cord, white gremial cloth, long black velum on head.

86. Ursula, St (Rome).—Woollen vestis of mingled black and violet, with black tunic fastened by black leather girdle. Usual vela on head, the black one reaching to the knees.

87. Ursula, St (Parma).—Black vestis, very long dark violet pallium, the hem girt up in the girdle, and that part over the head concealing the eyes.

88. Vallumbrosanae.—As monks, but with black cuculla; usual vela on head.

89. Ministrantes Infirmis (Belgium).—Black dress and scapular; white velum over head and shoulders.

90. Ministrantes Infirmis (Liburni).—Blue dress with long and wide sleeves, white velamen over head and breast, another white velamen loose on head girded with rope round waist.

91. Sacrament, Poor Virgins of the Holy.—Woollen tawny tunic girt with rope. White velamen on head.

Mediaeval University Costume.

The details here given respecting mediaeval university costume are abridged from a long and exhaustive paper by Prof. E. C. Clark in vol. 50 of the Archaeological Journal.

There is no doubt that the university dress of the middle ages is an adaptation of monastic costume. The original schools from which the universities were developed were of a clerical character, and their members wore clerical dress. The dress of the mediaeval universities was international, unlike the costume worn to-day; hence the following account, while primarily concerned with the English universities, will serve as a description of Continental university dress as well.

The system of degrees was developed in France by the end of the thirteenth century. There were four grades: first, the ordinary scholar or undergraduate; then the determinant; thirdly the licentiate; and fourthly the master, professor or doctor. The undergraduate resided, attended lectures, and argued on questions in the schools; the determinant 'determined' or decided on questions upon which he had previously merely argued; the licentiate received the chancellor's 'licence' to incept (i.e., take the steps necessary for obtaining the master's degrees), to lecture, and to dispute in school exercises. The mastership was the highest grade, and it included the regent, who was engaged in teaching, and the non-regent, who had ceased to teach. From the second grade probably sprung the baccalaureat; the bachelor was at first a kind of supernumerary teacher, whose lectures were probably recognised only within his own university.

The robes are thus described:

1. Toga or roba talaris, the simplest and most general form of university dress, probably originally derived from the Benedictine habit. It was full and flowing, open in front, with wide sleeves through which the arms passed their whole length. Subsequent modifications curtailed the sleeves for undergraduates (retaining the fuller form for mourning), and (in England) introduced distinctive marks for the various colleges. The modern Bachelor and Master of Arts gown is derived from this dress combined with other garments. In certain colleges in Oxford it was directed to be sewn up from the wearer's middle to the ground. In Clare Hall, Cambridge, fellows were permitted to line it with fur. Gona and Epitogium, which we meet with in certain mediaeval statutes, are probably synonyms of this.

2. Hood. The hood (caputium) was originally the head-covering in bad weather; it was afterwards dropped on the shoulders, and then assumed the form of a small cape. A large tippet is sometimes seen beneath this cape in representations of academical costume. The Undergraduate's or Scholar's hood was black, not lined, and to it a long liripipe or streamer was sewn at the back; the Graduate's was furred or lined, with a short liripipe. The various degrees were indicated by differences of lining; bachelors wore badger's fur or lamb's wool; licentiates and regents wore minever or some more expensive fur; non-regents wore silk. When the undergraduates abandoned hoods (before sixteenth century; exact date uncertain) they became a distinctive mark of the attainment of a degree.

The liripipe was also called tipetum or cornetum. The latter may be the origin of the French cornette, a silk band formerly worn by French doctors of law, and a possible origin for the modern English scarf. The word liripipe is also used to denote pendant false sleeves, and also the tails of long-pointed shoes. This, however, lies rather in the region of everyday costume. In 1507, at Oxford, we find typet or cornetum used to denote an alternative for the toga talaris allowed to Bachelors of Civil Law. This is clearly not the tail of a hood, but its exact significance is uncertain.

3. Mantellum. The origin and meaning of this word are alike uncertain. The use of 'mantelli or liripipia, commonly called typets,' was prohibited to fellows and scholars of Magdalen College, Oxford, by a statute dated 1479, except infirmitatis causa. From this we may infer that the mantellus (also called mantella or mantellum) was something akin to the liripipe. In another notice (1239) they are coupled with cappae: certain riotous clerks had to march in a penitential procession 'sine cappis et mantellis.' Prof. Clark infers from these passages and from other sources that the academical mantellum 'is not a hood, but is worn either instead of, or in addition to, the hood, with the cope, or else instead of the cope or long tabard.'

4. Cassock. This was at one time worn by all members of universities under their gowns. Doctors of divinity, doctors of laws, cardinals, and canons wore scarlet. Certain days at present are called 'Scarlet Days' in the English universities, on which doctors in all faculties wear scarlet. This may be a survival of the ancient scarlet cassock.

5. Surplice. 'A dress of ministration, used in college chapels by non-ministrants, more as a matter of college discipline than as academical costume.'

6. Almuce. Distinctive of masters and doctors, distinct from the hood. Another possible origin of the English hood.

7. Cope. There were two kinds of cope in use at the English universities—the cappa manicata or sleeved cope; and an uncomfortable contrivance called the cappa clausa, which was sewn all the way up, passed over the head when put on, and was not provided with sleeves or other openings for the arms save a short longitudinal slit in front. The Archbishop of Canterbury prescribed this as a decent garb for Archdeacons, Deans and Prebendaries in 1222. Regents in arts, laws, and theology were permitted to lecture in a cappa clausa or pallium only. The cappa manicata was probably worn generally, as being a sober and dignified dress; it very rarely occurs in contemporary representations.

8. The tabard or colobium was a sleeveless gown closed in front; but ultimately it was slit up, the sleeves of the gown proper were transferred to it, and the use of the latter discontinued. All not yet bachelors were required by the statutes of Trinity Hall, Cambridge (1352), to wear long tabards, while Clare Hall, the adjoining foundation, required its Master (Head), masters, and Bachelor Fellows to wear this and other robes, in 1359. Kings' Hall (1380) required every scholar to wear a roba talaris, and every bachelor a robe with tabard suited to his degree.

9. University Head-dress. A skull-cap was early allowed to ecclesiastics to protect the tonsured head in cold weather, and, except the ordinary hood, this is the only head-dress recognised by the early university statutes. This pileus, however, soon assumed a pointed shape, thus , and in this form was recognised as part of the insignia of the doctorate; doctors only are represented wearing it upon monuments. The central point developed afterwards into the modern tassel. Bachelors wore no official head-dress.