Fig. 16.—Sea anemones, Bunodes californica, open and closed individuals. The closed individuals in upper right-hand corner show the external covering of small bits of rock and shell, characteristic of most individuals of this species. (From living specimens in a tide-pool on the Bay of Monterey, California.)
But in other oceans, along the coasts of other lands, especially those of the tropics and sub-tropics, there are some other members of the class which are of unusual interest. They are the corals, or coral polyps. We know these animals chiefly by their skeletons (fig. 17). The specimens of corals which one sees in collections, or made into ornaments, are the calcareous skeletons of various kinds of the coral polyps. Some of the corals live together in enormous numbers, forming branching colonies fixed as closely together as possible, and secrete while living a stony skeleton of carbonate of lime. These skeletons persist after the death of the animals, and because of their abundance and close massing form great reefs or banks and islands. These coral reefs and islands occur only in the warmer oceans. In the Atlantic they are found along the coasts of Southern Florida, Brazil and the West Indies; in the Pacific and Indian Oceans there are great coral reefs on the coast of Australia, Madagascar and elsewhere, and certain large groups of inhabited islands like the Fiji, Society, and Friendly Islands are exclusively of coral formation. Coral islands have a great variety of form, although the elongated, circular, ring-shaped and crescent forms predominate. How such islands are first formed is described as follows by a well-known student of corals:
"A growing coral plantation, with its multitudinous life, oftentimes arises from great depths of the ocean, and the sea-bed upon which it rests is probably a submarine bank or mountain, upon which have lodged and slowly aggregated the hard skeletons of pelagic forms of life. When, through various sources of increase, this submarine bank approaches the depth of from one hundred to one hundred and fifty feet from the surface of the water, there begins on its top a most wonderful vital activity. It is then within the bathymetric zone of the reef-building corals. Of the many groups of marine life which then take possession of the bank, corals are not the only animals, but they are the most important, as far as its subsequent history goes. As the bank slowly rises by their growth, it at last approaches the surface of the water, and at low tide the tips of the growing branches of coral are exposed to the air. This, however, only takes place in sheltered localities, for long before it has reached this elevation it has begun to be more or less changed and broken by the force of the waves. As the submarine bank approaches the tide level, the delicate branching forms have to meet a terrific wave-action. Fragments of the branching corals are broken off from the bank by force of the waves, and falling down into the midst of the growing coral below fill up the interstices, and thus render the whole mass more compact. At the same time larger fragments are broken and rolled about by the waves and are eventually washed up into banks upon the coral plantation, so that the island now appears slightly elevated above the tides. This may be called a first stage in the development of a coral island. It is, however, little more than a low ridge of worn fragments of coral washed by the high tides and swept by the larger waves—a low, narrow island resting on a large submarine bank."
When the coral island rises thus a little above the surface of the water, the waves break up some of the coral into fine sand, which fills in the interstices, and offers a sort of soil in which may germinate seeds brought in the dried mud on the feet of ocean birds or carried by the ocean currents. With the beginning of vegetable growth the soil is more firmly held, is fertilized and ready for the seeds of plants which need a better soil than lime sand. Flying insects find their way to the island, especially if it be near the mainland, birds begin to nest on it, and soon it may be the seat of a luxuriant plant and animal life.
For an account of coral islands see Darwin's "The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs."
There are over 2000 kinds of coral polyp known, and their skeletons vary much in appearance. Because of the appearance of the skeleton certain corals have received common names, as the organ-pipe coral, brain coral, etc. The red coral, of which jewelry is made, grows chiefly in the Mediterranean. It is gathered especially on the western coast of Italy, and on the coasts of Sicily and Sardinia. Most of this coral is sent to Naples, where it is cut into ornaments.
There are other interesting members of the class Actinozoa like the beautiful sea-pens, sea-feathers and sea-fans, delicate, branching, tree-like forms found all over the world.
Ctenophora.—The members of this class are mostly small, peculiar jellyfishes which do not form colonies, and are extremely delicate, being usually perfectly transparent. They swim by means of cilia. They never appear in a polyp condition, but are always medusoid in shape.
CHAPTER XVIII
BRANCH ECHINODERMATA: STARFISHES, SEA-URCHINS, SEA-CUCUMBERS
STARFISH (Asterias sp.)
Technical Note.—The species of Asterias are widely distributed on both coasts of the United States and may be procured on almost any rocky shore at low tide. Teachers in inland schools can obtain preserved material from the dealers mentioned on p. 453. Most of the specimens should be placed in alcohol or 4% formalin. If fresh material can be had it is well to place at least one specimen for each student in a 20% solution of nitric acid in water for two or three hours, when all of the calcareous parts will have been dissolved, and after a thorough washing the specimen will be ready for use.
External structure (figs. 18 and 19.)—In a fresh specimen or one which has been preserved in alcohol or formalin note the raying out of parts of the body from a common centre. This is characteristic of the body organization of all Echinoderms, and is known as radial symmetry. The lower surface of the body is called the oral (because the mouth is on this surface), while the upper is called the aboral surface. The central part of the body is called the disk. Note on the aboral surface of the disk a small striated calcareous plate, the madreporite or madreporic plate. In the middle (or very nearly in the middle) of this surface of the disk there is a small pore, the anal opening. The entire aboral surface as well as a greater part of the oral side is thickly studded with the calcareous ossicles of the body-wall. These ossicles support numerous short stout spines arranged in irregular rows. Note that some of the ossicles support certain very small pincer-like processes, the pedicellariæ. In the interspaces between the calcareous plates are soft fringe-like projections of the inner body-lining, the respiratory cæca. Note at the tip of each arm or ray a cluster of small calcareous ossicles and within each cluster a small speck of red pigment, the eye-spot or ocellus.
Make a drawing of the aboral surface showing all these parts.
On the oral surface note the centrally-located mouth, the ambulacral grooves, one running longitudinally along each ray, and in each groove two double rows of soft tubular bodies with sucker-like tips. These are called the tube-feet and are organs of locomotion. Make a drawing of the oral surface.
Internal structure (figs. 18 and 19).—Technical Note.—Take a specimen which has been immersed for some time in the nitric acid solution, and with a strong pair of scissors, or better, bone-cutters, cut away all the aboral wall of the disk except that immediately around the madreporite and the anus. Now begin at the tip of each ray and cut away the aboral wall of each, leaving, however, a single arm intact. When the roof of each arm has been carefully dissected away the specimen should appear as in fig. 18.
Note the large alimentary canal, which is divided into several regions. Note the short œsophagus leading from the mouth on the oral surface directly into a large membranous pouch, the cardiac portion of the stomach. By a short constriction the cardiac portion is separated from the part which lies just above, i.e., the pyloric portion of the stomach. From the pyloric portion large, pointed, paired glandular appendages extend into each ray. These are the pyloric cæca. Their function is digestive, and oftentimes they are spoken of as the digestive glands or "livers." The pyloric cæca, as well as the cardiac portion of the stomach, are held in place by paired muscles which extend into each arm. Note two sets of these muscles, one set for thrusting the cardiac portion of the stomach out through the mouth and another for pulling it back, the protractor muscles and retractor muscles, respectively. The starfish obtains its food by enclosing it in its everted stomach and then withdrawing stomach and food into the body. Note that the pyloric portion of the stomach opens above into a short intestine terminating in the anus, and observe that there is attached to the intestine a convoluted many-branched tube, the intestinal cæcum.
Carefully remove a pair of pyloric cæca from one of the rays and note the short duct which connects them with the pyloric chamber of the stomach. Note in the angle of each two adjoining rays paired glandular masses which empty by a common duct on the aboral surface. These glands are the reproductive organs. Note the small bulb-like bladders extending in two double rows on the floor of each ray. These are the water-sacs or ampullæ, and each one is connected directly with one of the locomotor organs, the tube-feet.
Make a drawing of the organs in the dissection which have so far been studied.
Technical Note.—For a careful study of the locomotor organs a fresh starfish should be injected. This can usually be accomplished by cutting one ray off squarely, and inserting the needle of a hypodermic syringe (which has been previously filled with a watery solution of carmine or Berlin blue), into the end of the radial water-tube which runs along the floor of the ray. By injecting here, the whole system of vessels, tube-feet, and ampullæ are filled.
Note a ring-shaped canal which passes around the alimentary canal near the mouth from which radial vessels run out beneath the floor of each ray and from which a hard tube extends to the madreporite. This hard tube is the stone canal, so called because its walls contain a series of calcareous rings, while the circular tube is the ring canal or circum-oral water-ring from which radiate the radial canals. In some species of starfish there are bladder-like reservoirs, Polian vesicles, which extend interradially from the ring canal.
Note that the ampullæ and tube-feet are all connected with the radial canals. By a contraction of the delicate muscles in the walls of the ampullæ the fluid in the cavity is compressed, thereby forcing the tube-feet out. By the contraction of muscles in the tube-feet they are again shortened while the small disk-like terminal sucker clings to some firm object. In this way the animal pulls itself along by successive "steps." This entire system, called the water-vascular system, is characteristic of the branch Echinodermata. In addition to the fluid in the water-vascular system there is yet another body-fluid, the perivisceral fluid, which bathes all of the tissues and fills the body-cavity.
Technical Note.—Take a drop of the perivisceral fluid from a living starfish and examine under high power of microscope, noting the amœboid cells it contains.
The perivisceral fluid is aerated through outpocketings of the thin body-wall which extend outward between the calcareous plates of the body. These outpocketings have already been mentioned as the respiratory cæca (see p. 109). Surrounding the stone canal is a thin membranous tube, and within it and by the side of the stone canal is a soft tubular sac. The function of these organs is not certainly known.
Work out the nervous system; note, as its principal parts, a nerve-ring about the mouth, and nerves running from this ring beneath the radial canals along each arm.
Life-history and habits.—The starfishes are all marine forms. They hatch from eggs, and in their early stages are very different in appearance from the adults. At first they are bilaterally symmetrical, their radial symmetry being acquired later. Thousands of eggs and sperm-cells are extruded into the sea-water, where fertilization and development take place. The young swim freely in the open sea, feeding on microscopic organisms, and then undergo very radical changes in the course of their development. The adults are for the most part carnivorous, feeding on crabs, snails, and the like. The live prey is surrounded by the extruded stomach which secretes fluids that kill it, after which the soft parts are digested. (See general account of the life-history of Echinoderms on p. 119.)
THE SEA-URCHIN (Strongylocentrotus sp.)
External structure.—Technical Note.—If fresh or alcoholic specimens or even the dry "tests" of the sea-urchin (fig. 20) are to be had, the general characteristics of the external structure can be made out.
How does the external surface of the sea-urchin differ from that of the starfish? Can you find the very long tube-feet? Where is the mouth-opening? With what is it surrounded? Each tooth is enclosed in a calcareous framework. The whole structure is known as "Aristotle's lantern."
Technical Note.—Remove the spines from the underlying shell or test (fig. 21) and wash the test until perfectly clean, or place in a solution of lye for a short time and then wash.
Fig. 20.—A sea-urchin, Strongylocentrotus franciscanus. (From specimen from Bay of Monterey, Calif.)
Note the characteristic radial symmetry of the shell or test. Note on the aboral aspect, diverging from the medial anal aperture, five double rows of pores. What are these for? Each of the five divisions set with pores is called an ambulacral area, while the intervening segments which support the long spines are called the interambulacral areas. Note on the aboral surface, surrounding the median-placed anal aperture, a series of small plates. Those which are located in the interambulacral areas are the genital plates. Through these plates the ducts from the reproductive organs open by small pores. Note a very much enlarged plate with a striated appearance. This is the madreporite, which, as in the starfish, is the external opening of the stone canal and water-vascular system. Note the small ocular plate at the tip of each ambulacral area. The ocular plates contain small pigment-cells and communicate with the nervous system.
Fig. 21.—"Test" of sea-urchin, Strongylocentrotus franciscanus, with spines removed. (From specimen.)
From a general inspection of the sea-urchin's shell the Echinoderm characteristics, namely, radial symmetry and the presence of the water-vascular system, are readily seen. While at first glance there is apparent little similarity between the starfish and sea-urchin, nevertheless careful examination shows that the two animals are alike in their fundamental structure. Both are radially symmetrical. The position of the anal opening makes both starfish and sea-urchin slightly asymmetrical. In both the madreporite and anus are on the aboral side, while the mouth is centrally located on the oral side. In the starfish we noted five ambulacral areas, one on the under side of each arm; similarly we find five in the sea-urchin. In both cases also we find the ocular spots at the tips of the ambulacral areas. The genital apertures are situated interradially in the starfish. In the sea-urchin they are similarly placed. The dissimilarity between the two forms is largely due to the very much developed outer spines and the dorso-ventral thickening of the disk in the sea-urchin. The starfish is carnivorous, while the sea-urchin lives on vegetable matter consisting for the most part of green algæ and the red sea-weeds. Correlated with this difference in food-habits there are certain differences in the structure of the internal organs. For example, the alimentary canal in the sea-urchin winds in about two and one-half turns within the body-cavity before it reaches the anus.
OTHER STARFISHES, SEA-URCHINS, SEA-CUCUMBERS, ETC.
Without exception all the Echinoderms, under which term are included the starfishes, sea-urchins, brittle-stars, feather-stars, and sea-cucumbers, live in the ocean. Some of them, the starfishes and sea-urchins, are among the most common and familiar animals of the seashore. Most of them are not fixed, but can move about freely, though slowly. Some of the feather-stars are fixed, as the sponges and polyps are.
Shape and organization of body.—The body-shape of the Echinoderm varies from the flat, rayed body of the starfish to the thick, flattened egg-shape of the sea-urchin, the melon-like sac of the sea-cucumber and the delicate many-branched head of the sea-lily sometimes borne on a slender stalk. But in all these shapes can be seen more or less plainly a symmetrical, radiate arrangement of the parts of the body. The Echinoderm body has a central portion from which radiate separate arm or branch-like parts, as in the starfishes and sea-lilies, or about which are arranged radiately the internal body-parts, although the external appearance may at first sight give no plain indication of the radiate arrangement. This is the case with the sea-urchins and sea-cucumbers, yet, as has been seen in the sea-urchin, the radiate arrangement can be readily perceived by closer examination of the surface of the egg- or sac-like body. The radiating parts of the body are usually five. In the body of an Echinoderm can be usually recognized an upper or dorsal surface and a lower or ventral surface. The mouth is usually situated on the ventral side and the anal opening on the dorsal. Echinoderms agree also in having a calcareous outer skeleton or body-wall usually in the condition of definitely-shaped plates or spicules fitted either movably or rigidly together. This outer body-wall or exoskeleton may bear many tubercles or spines. These spines are sometimes movable. The body-wall of the sea-urchin shows very well the exoskeleton composed of plates on which are borne movable strong spines.
Structure and organs.—As has been learned from the dissection of the starfish, the Echinoderms have well-developed systems of organs. The body-structure in its complex organization presents a marked advance beyond the structural condition of the polyps and jellyfishes. There is a well-organized digestive system with mouth, alimentary canal, and anal opening. The alimentary canal is either a simple spiral or coiled tube, or it is a tube in which can be recognized different parts, namely, œsophagus, stomach, intestine, cæca, and special glands secreting digestive fluids. This alimentary canal is not, as in the polyps, simply the body-cavity, but it is an inclosed tubular cavity lying within the general body-cavity. At the mouth-opening there is in some Echinoderms, notably the sea-urchins, a strong masticating apparatus consisting of five pointed teeth which are arranged in a circle about the opening. The nervous system consists of a central ring around the œsophagus or mouth, from which branches extend into the radiately arranged arms or regions of the body. There is no brain as in the higher animals, but the central nerve-ring is composed of both nerve-cells and nerve-fibres as in the nerve-centres of higher forms. Of organs of special sense there are special tactile or touch organs in all the Echinoderms, and the starfishes have very simply composed eyes or eye-like organs at the tips of the rays.
While some of the Echinoderms breathe simply through the outer body-wall, taking up by osmosis the air mixed with the water, some of them have special, though very simple, gill-like respiratory organs. These organs consist of small membranous sacs which are either pushed out from the body into the water, or lie in cavities in the body to which the water has access. There is also a distinct circulatory system, but the "blood" which is carried by these organs and which fills the body-cavity consists mainly of sea-water, although containing a number of amœboid corpuscles containing a brown pigment. There is no organ really corresponding to the heart of the higher animals. There are distinct organs for the production of the germ or reproductive cells. The sexes are distinct (except in a few species), each individual producing only sperm-cells or egg-cells, but the organs or glands which produce the germ-cells are very much alike in both sexes. There is no apparent difference between male and female Echinoderms except in the character or rather in the product of the germ-cell producing organs. A few species are exceptions, certain starfishes showing a difference in color between males and females.
As all of the Echinoderms except some of the feather-stars can move about, they have organs of locomotion, and well-defined muscles for the movement of the locomotory organs. The external organs of locomotion, the tube-feet (in the sea-urchins the dermal spines aid also in locomotion), are parts of a peculiar system of organs characteristic of the Echinoderms, called the ambulacral or the water-vascular system. This system is composed of a series of radial tubular vessels which rise from a central circular or ring vessel and which give off branches to each of the tube-feet. The water from the outside enters the ambulacral system through a special opening, the madreporic opening, and flowing to the tube-feet helps extend them. The tube-feet usually have a tiny sucking disk at the tip, and by means of them the Echinoderm can cling very firmly to rocks.
Development and life-history.—Differing from the sponges and the polyps and jellyfishes, the reproduction of the Echinoderms is always sexual; young or new individuals are never produced by budding, or in any other asexual way. The new individual is always developed from an egg produced by a female and fertilized by the sperm of a male. The eggs are usually red or yellow, are very small (about 1/50 in. in diameter in certain starfishes), and are fertilized by the sperm-cells of the males after leaving the body of the female. That is, both sperm-cells and unfertilized egg-cells are poured out into the water by the adults, and the motile sperm-cells in some way find and fertilize the egg-cells.
From the egg there hatches a tiny larva which does not at all resemble the parent starfish or sea-urchin. It is an active free-swimming creature, more or less ellipsoidal in shape and provided with cilia for swimming. Soon its body changes form and assumes a very curious shape with prominent projections. The larvæ of the various kinds of Echinoderms, as the starfishes, sea-urchins, sea-cucumbers, etc., are of different characteristic shapes. The naturalists who first discovered these odd little animals did not associate them in their minds with the very differently shaped starfishes and sea-urchins, but believed them new kinds of fully developed marine animals, and gave them names. Thus the larvæ of the starfishes were called Bipinnaria, the larvæ of the sea-urchins Pluteus, and so on. These names are still used to designate the larvæ, but with the knowledge that Bipinnaria are simply young starfishes, and that a Pluteus is simply a young sea-urchin. From these larval stages the adult or fully developed starfish or sea-urchin develops by very great changes or metamorphoses. The Echinoderms have in their life-history a metamorphosis as striking as the butterflies and moths, which are crawling worm-like caterpillars in their young or larval condition.
Most of the Echinoderms have the power of regenerating lost parts. That is, if a starfish loses an arm (ray) through accident, a new ray will grow out to replace the old. And this power of regeneration extends so far in the case of some starfishes that if very badly mutilated they can practically regenerate the whole body. This amounts to a kind of asexual reproduction. Some species, too, have the peculiar habit of self-mutilation. "Many brittle stars and some starfishes when removed from the water, or when molested in any way, break off portions of their arms piece by piece, until, it may be, the whole of them are thrown off to the very bases, leaving the central disc entirely bereft of arms. A central disc thus partly or completely deprived of its arms is capable in many cases of developing a new set; and a separated arm is capable in many cases of developing a new disc and a completed series of arms." In some of the sea-cucumbers "it is the internal organs, or rather portions of them, that are capable of being thrown off and replaced, the œsophagus ... or the entire alimentary canal, being ejected from the body by strong contractions of the muscular fibres of the body-wall, and in some cases, at least, afterwards becoming completely renewed."
Classification.—The Echinodermata are divided into five classes, viz., the Asteroidea or starfishes, "free Echinoderms with star-shaped or pentagonal body, in which a central disc and usually five arms are more or less readily distinguishable, the arms being hollow and each containing a prolongation of the body-cavity and contained organs"; the Ophiuroidea, or brittle-stars, "star-shaped free Echinoderms, with a central disc and five arms, which are more sharply marked off from the disc than in the Asteroidea and which contain no spacious prolongations of the body-cavity"; the Echinoidea, or sea-urchins, "free Echinoderms with globular, heart-shaped, or disc-shaped body enclosed in a shell or corona of close-fitting, firmly united calcareous plates"; the Holothuroidea, or sea-cucumbers, "free Echinoderms with elongated cylindrical or five-sided body, ... with a circlet of large oral tentacles"; and the Crinoidea, or feather-stars, "temporarily or permanently stalked Echinoderms with star-shaped body, consisting of a central disc, and a series of five bifurcate or more completely branched arms, bordered with pinnules."
Starfishes (Asteroidea).—The starfishes feed on other marine animals, especially shell-fish and crabs. They are also reputed to destroy young fish. By means of their sucking-tubes, or tube-feet with sucker tips, they can seize and hold their prey firmly. They do much injury to oyster-beds by attacking and devouring the oysters. When attacking prey too large to be taken into the mouth the starfish everts its stomach over the prey and devours it. The stomach is afterward drawn back into the body-cavity by special muscles.
Starfishes vary much in size, color and general appearance, although all are readily recognizable as starfishes (fig. 22). The number of arms or rays varies from five to thirty or more in different species; some have the interradial spaces filled out nearly to the tips of the rays, making the animal simply a pentagonal disc. In size starfishes vary from a fraction of an inch in diameter to three feet; in color they are yellow or red or brown or purple.
Fig. 22.—A group of Echinoderms; the upper one, a starfish, Asterina mineata, the one at the right a starfish, Asterias ocracia, at the left a brittle-star, species unknown, and at bottom two sea-urchins, Strongylocentrotus franciscanus. (From living specimens in a tide-pool on the Bay of Monterey, California.)
Brittle-stars (Ophiuroidea).—The brittle-stars, or serpent-stars (fig. 22) as they are also called, resemble the starfishes in external appearance, that is, they are flat and composed of a central disc with radiating arms (always five in number, although each arm may be several times branched). The central disc is always sharply distinguished from the arms, and the arms are usually slender and more or less cylindrical. The distinguishing difference between the brittle-stars and the starfishes is that the body-cavity and the stomach which extend out into the arms in the starfishes are in the brittle-stars limited to the central disc, or to the disc and bases of the arms. The tube-feet also have no suckers at the tips. More than 700 species of brittle-stars are known. They feed on marine shell-fish, crabs and worms.
Sea-urchins (Echinoidea).—The sea-urchins (figs. 20, 21 and 22) of which more than 300 species are known, have no arms or rays, and they are usually not flat like the starfishes but globular, with poles more or less flattened. As has been noted in the examination of the body-wall or "shell," the radiate character of the body is shown by the five radiating zones of tube-feet. The mouth, with its five strong "teeth," is on the ventral surface, and the anal opening and madreporic opening are on the dorsal surface. The calcareous plates (seen distinctly in a specimen from which the spines have been removed) which constitute the firm part of the body-wall, are more or less pentagonal in shape and are usually firmly united at the edges. The spines which are so characteristic of the sea-urchins vary much in size and number and firmness, but are present in some form on all of them.
While most of the sea-urchins live near the shore, being very common in tide-pools, some live only on the bottom of the ocean at great depths. Their food consists of small marine animals and of bits of organic matter which they collect from the sand and débris of the ocean floor. Many of the sea-urchins are gregarious, living together in great numbers. Some have the habit of boring into the rocks of the shore between tide-lines. I have seen thousands of small beautifully colored purple sea-urchins lying each in a spherical pit or hole in hard conglomerate rock on the California coast. How they are enabled to bore these holes is not yet known. There is great variety in size and color among the sea-urchins. The colors are brown, olive, purple red, greenish blue, etc.
A few kinds of sea-urchins have a flexible shell or test. The Challenger expedition dredged up from sea-bottom some sea-urchins, and when placed on the ship's deck "the test moved and shrank from touch when handled, and felt like a starfish." The cake-urchins or sand-dollars are sea-urchins having a very flat body with short spines. They lie buried in the sand, and are often very brightly colored. Their hollow bleached tests with the spines all rubbed off are common on the sands of both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts.
Sea-cucumbers (Holothuroidea).—The sea-cucumbers (fig. 23) show at first glance little resemblance to the other radiate animals. The body is an elongate, sub-cylindrical sac, resembling a thick worm or sausage or cucumber in shape. At one end it bears a group of branched tentacles which are set in a ring around the mouth-opening. The body-wall is muscular and leathery, but contains many small separated calcareous spicules. There are usually five longitudinal rows of tube-feet. In some species, however, tube feet are wholly wanting; in others they are scattered over the surface.
Although there are known about five hundred species of sea-cucumbers many of which live along the shores, they are much less familiar to us than the starfishes and sea-urchins. They usually rest buried in the sand by day, feeding at night. Some of them attain a large size. A great orange-red species of the genus Cucumaria, which is found in the Bay of Monterey, California, is three feet long.
The people of some nations use sea-cucumbers as food. They are called "trepang" in the orient. The trade of preparing the trepang is almost entirely in the hands of the Malays, and every year large fleets set sail from Macassar and the Philippines to the south seas to catch sea-cucumbers.
Feather-stars (Crinoidea).—The feather-stars or sea-lilies or crinoids (fig. 24), as they are variously called, differ from the other Echinoderms in having the mouth on the upper side of the central disc, and in the fact that all of the species are fixed, either permanently or for a part of their life, being attached to rocks on the sea-bottom by a longer or shorter stalk which is composed of a series of rings or segments. The central disc is small and the radiating arms are long, slender, sometimes repeatedly branched, and all the branches bear fine lateral projections called pinnulæ. Most of the feather-stars live in deep water and are thus only seen after being dredged up. They feed on small crab-like animals, and on the marine unicellular animals and plants.
CHAPTER XIX
BRANCH VERMES:[8] THE WORMS
THE EARTHWORM (Lumbricus sp.).
Technical Note.—Obtain live earthworms of large size, killing some in 30% alcohol and hardening and preserving them in 80% alcohol, and bringing others alive to the laboratory. The worms may be found during the daytime by digging, or at night by searching with a lantern. They often come above ground in the daytime after a heavy rain. Live specimens may be kept in the laboratory in flower-pots filled with soil. "They may be fed on bits of raw meat, preferably fat, bits of onion, celery, cabbage, etc., thrown on the soil."
External structure (fig. 25).—Examine the external structure of live and dead specimens. Which is the ventral and which the dorsal surface? Which the anterior and which the posterior end? Note the segmented condition of the body; the number of segments or somites, and their relative size and shape. Note absence of appendages such as limbs and the presence of locomotor setæ (short bristles). How many setæ are there on each segment and what is their disposition? The mouth is covered by a dorsal projection called the prostomium. The anal opening is situated in the posterior segment of the body. The broad thickened ring or girdle including several segments near the anterior end of the body is the clitellum, a glandular structure which secretes the cases in which the eggs are laid. On the ventral surface of the fourteenth and fifteenth segments (in most species) are two pairs of small pores; two other pairs of small openings (usually difficult to find), one between segments 9 and 10, and one between segments 10 and 11, are present. All these are the external openings of the reproductive organs.
Make drawings showing the external structure of the earthworm.
Examine a live specimen placed on moist paper or wood. Note the characteristics of its locomotion, and the movements of its body-parts. How do the setæ aid in locomotion?
Internal structure (figs. 25, 26 and 28).—Technical Note.—With a fine-pointed pair of scissors make a dorsal median incision, not too deep, behind the clitellum and cut forward as far as the first segment. Put the specimen into dissecting-dish, carefully pin back the edges of the cut and cover with clear water or, better, 50% alcohol.
Note the long body-cavity divided by the thin septa which have been torn away for the most part by the pinning process. Note the thin transparent covering of the body, the cuticle. Just beneath this note a less transparent layer, the epidermis, and underneath this a layer of muscles. The muscular layer is made up of two clearly recognizable sets, an outer circular layer and an inner longitudinal layer the fibres of which are continuous with the septa.
Note, as the most conspicuous internal organ, the long alimentary canal, of which a number of distinct parts may be recognized. Most anteriorly is a muscular pharynx, which is followed by a narrow œsophagus, leading directly into the thin-walled crop; next comes the muscular gizzard, and next the intestine which opens externally in the terminal segment through the anus. The anterior end of the alimentary canal is more or less protrusible, while the posterior portion is held more firmly in place by the septa which act as mesenteries. Surrounding the narrow œsophagus are the reproductive organs, three pairs of large white bodies and two pairs of smaller sacs.
Note the dorsal blood-vessel lying along the dorsal surface of the alimentary canal, from the anterior portion of which arise several circumœsophageal rings or "hearts." These hearts are contractile and serve to keep the blood in motion through the blood-vessels (see later). In the most anterior of the body segments note the pear-shaped brain or cerebral ganglion.
Technical Note.—Lift carefully to right and left the reproductive organs, thus exposing the œsophagus.
Note three pairs of bag-like structures projecting from the œsophagus. The front pair is the œsophageal pouches; the next two pairs are the œsophageal or calciferous glands. They communicate with the alimentary canal, and their secretion is a milky calcareous fluid.
Make a drawing that will show all the parts so far studied.
Technical Note.—Cut transversely through the alimentary canal in the region of the clitellum and carefully dissect the anterior portion of the canal away from the surrounding organs.
Note the dorsal fold of the intestine, typhlosole, extending into the lumen. This fold gives a greater surface for digestion, and in it are a great many hepatic or special digestive cells. The entire alimentary canal is lined with epithelium. Observe just beneath the alimentary canal the ventral blood-vessel, and still beneath this blood-vessel the ventral nerve-cord. There is a slight swelling on the nerve-cord in each segment of the body. These swellings are the ganglia. How many pairs of nerves are given off from each ganglion? Observe in each segment, posterior to the first three or four, the successive pairs of convoluted tubes, the nephridia, or organs of excretion. Each nephridium opens internally through a ciliated funnel, the nephrostome, within the body-cavity, while it opens externally by a small excretory pore between the setæ on the ventral surface of the segment behind that in which the nephridium chiefly lies. The function of the nephridia is to carry off waste matter from the fluid which fills the body-cavity.