Elements of Gaelic Grammar

Each grove, each dell, and each water-fall, will bring to my remembrance the form of my love. Id. p. 30.

That day shall never come, which shall bring the sun-beam of my love to the North. Fingal II. 192.

In words I yield to Morla; my sword to no living man shall yield. Fing. II. 203. This inversion is never admitted into plain discourse or unimpassioned narrative.

In those Persons of the Verb in which the terminations supply the place of the Personal Pronouns, no Nominative is expressed along with the Verb. In all the other Persons of the Verb, a Noun or a Pronoun is commonly expressed as its Nominative. In sentences of a poetical structure, the Nominative is sometimes, though rarely, omitted; as, am fear nach gabh 'nuair gheibh, cha 'n fhaigh 'nuair 's aill, the man who will not take when [he] can get, will not get when [he] wishes.

The Infinitive often takes before it the Nominative of the Agent; in which case the Preposition do is either expressed or understood before the Infinitive; as, feuch, cia meud a mhaith, braithre do bhi 'n an comhnuidh ann sith! behold how great a good it is, that brethren dwell in peace! Psal. cxxxiii, 1. Is e mi dh' fhantuinn 's an fheoil, a 's feumaile dhuibhse, my abiding in the flesh is more needful for you, Phil. i. 24, Cha n'eil e iomchuidh sinne dh' fhagail focail Dé, agus a fhrithealadh do bhordaibh, it is not meet that we should leave the word of God, and serve tables, Acts vi. 2. The Preposition do, being softened as usual into a, readily disappears after a Vowel; as, air son mi bhi a rìs a lathàir maille ribh, by my being again present with you, Phil. i. 26^[104].

Section V.

Of the Agreement of one Noun with Another.

When in the same sentence two or more Nouns, applied as names to the same object, stand in the same grammatical relation to other words, it should naturally be expected that their Form, in so far as it depends on that relation, should be the same; in other words, that Nouns denoting the same object, and related alike to the governing word, should agree in Case. This accordingly happens in Greek and Latin. In Gaelic, where a variety of form gives room for the application of the same rule, it has been followed in some instances; as, Doncha mac Chailain mhic Dhonuil, Duncan the son of Colin the son of Donald; where the words Chailain and mhic denoting the same person, and being alike related to the preceding Noun mac are on that account both in the same Case. It must be acknowledged, however, that this rule, obvious and natural as it is, has not been uniformly observed by the speakers of Gaelic. For example; instead of mac Ioseiph an t-saoir, the son of Joseph the carpenter, many would more readily say, mac Ioseiph an saor; instead of thuit e le laimh Oscair an laoich chruadalaich, he fell by the hand of Oscar the bold hero, it would rather be said, thuit e le laimh Oscair an laoch cruadalach. The latter of these two modes of expression may perhaps be defended on the ground of its being elliptical; and the ellipsis may be supplied thus: mac Ioseiph [is e sin] an saor; laimh Oscair [neach is e] an laoch cruadalach. Still it must be allowed, in favour of the rule in question, that the observance of it serves to mark the relation of the Nouns to each other, which would otherwise remain, in many instances, doubtful. Thus in one of the foregoing examples, if we should reject the rule, and write mac Ioseiph an saor; it would be impossible to know, from the form of the words, whether Joseph or his son were the carpenter.

The translators of the Scriptures into Gaelic, induced probably by the reasonableness and utility of the rule under consideration, by the example of the most polished Tongues, and by the usage of the Gaelic itself in some phrases, have uniformly adhered to this rule when the leading Noun was in the Genitive; as, do mhacaibh Bharsillai a' Ghileadaich, 1 Kings ii. 7; righ-chathair Dhaibhi athar, 1 Kings ii. 12; do thaobh Bheniamin am brathar, Judg. xxi. 6; ag gabhail nan clar chloiche, eadhon chlar a' cho-cheangail, Deut. ix. 9. The rule seems to have been disregarded when the leading Noun was in the Dative. See 1 Kings i. 25, Ruth iv. 5, Acts xiii. 33.

CHAPTER II.

OF GOVERNMENT.

Under this head is to be explained the Government of Nouns, of Adjectives, of Verbs, of Prepositions, and of Conjunctions.

Section I.

Of the Government of Nouns.

One Noun governs another in the Genitive. The Noun governed is always placed after that which governs it; as, ceann tighe, the head of a house or family; solus na gréine, light of the sun; bainne ghabhar milk of goats.

The Infinitives of Transitive Verbs, being themselves Nouns, (See Part II. Chap. V. p. 86.) govern in like manner the Genitive of their object; as, ag cur sìl, sowing seed; a dh' fhaicinn an t-sluaigh, to see the people; iar leughadh an t-soisgeil, after reading the gospel^[105].

Although no good reason appears why this rule, which is common to the Gaelic with many other languages, should ever be set aside, yet it has been set aside in speaking, and sometimes in writing Gaelic.

1. When the Noun governed does in its turn govern another Noun in the Genitive, the former is often put in the Nominative instead of the Genitive case. The following instances of this anomaly occur in the Gaelic Scriptures:—Guth briathran an t-sluaigh, instead of, bhriathran, the voice of the words of the people, Deut. v. 28; do mheas craobhan a' gharaidh, instead of, chraobhan, of the fruit of the trees of the garden, Gen. iii. 2; ag itheadh tighean bhantrach, for thighean, devouring widows' houses, Matt. xxiii. 14; ag nochdadh obair an lagha, for oibre, showing the work of the law, Rom. ii. 15; ag cuimhneachadh gun sgur obair bhur creidimh, agus saothair bhur graidh, for oibre, saoithreach, remembering without ceasing your work of faith, and labour of love, 1 Thess. i. 3; trid fuil is fearta Chriost, through the blood and merits of Christ, Gael. Paraph. 1787, p. 381, for trid fola Chriost, as in Eph. ii. 13; ag àiteach sliabh Shioin, for sleibh, inhabiting the hill of Zion, Psal. ix. 11. metr; air son obair Chriosd, Phil. ii. 30, 1767, according to the usage of the language, but changed to oibre, in Edit. 1796, to suit the Grammatical Rule^[106]. For the most part, however, the general rule, even in these circumstances, is followed; as, guth fola do bhrathar, the voice of thy brother's blood, Gen. iv. 10; amhainn duthcha cloinne a shluaigh the river of the land of the children of his people, Numb. xxii. 5; a' nigheadh chos sheirbhiseach mo thighearna, to wash the feet of the servants of my lord, 1 Sam. xxv. 41.

2. Such expressions as the following seem to be exceptions to the rule:—Dithis mac, 2 Sam. xv. 27, 36; ceathrar mac, 1 Chron. xxi. 20; leanabaibh mac, Matt. ii. 16. In the following similar instances, the rule is observed:—Dithis mhac, Gen. xli. 50; dithis fhear, 2 Sam. xii. 1; ceathrar fhear, Acts xxi. 23; ceathrar mhaighdiona, Acts xxi. 9.

The same anomaly takes place in the regimen of the infinitive, as in that of other Nouns. Though an Infinitive be in that grammatical relation to a preceding Noun which would require its being put in the Genitive, yet when itself also governs another noun in the Genitive, it often retains the form of the Nominative. The Infinitives naomhachadh, gnathachadh, briseadh, admit of a regular Genitive, naomhachaidh, gnathachaidh, brisidh. In the following examples, these Infinitives, because they govern a subsequent Noun in the Genitive, are themselves in the Nominative, though their relation to the preceding word naturally requires their being put in the Genitive Case. Tha an treas àithne a' toirmeasg mi-naomhachadh no mi-ghnathachadh ni sam bith, &c., the third commandment forbids the profaning or the abusing of any thing, &c. Assem. Cat. Gael. Edin. 1792, Answer to Q. 55. Ged fheud luchdbriseadh na h-aithne so dol as, &c., id. Q. 56., though the transgressors of this commandment may escape, &c. Cuis crathadh cinn is casadh béil, Psal. xxii. 7, as it is in the older edition of the Gaelic Psalms. An deigh leughadh an lagha, after the reading of the Law, Acts. xiii. 15; luchd cumadh uilc, Rom. i. 30^[107].

The Infinitive is not put in the Genitive, when preceded by a Possessive Pronoun, because it is in the same limited state as if it governed a Noun in the Genitive Case; as, a chum am marbhadh 's na beanntaibh, to kill them in the mountains, Exod. xxxii., not marbhaidh, which is the Case regularly governed by chum. Co tha 'g iarraidh do mharbhadh? John vii. 20, not do mharbhaidh. Thug iad leo e chum a cheusadh. Matt. xxvii. 31. Chum an cruinneachadh gu cath. Rev. xx. 8^[108].

This coincidence in the Regimen of the Infinitive in two similar situations, viz., when limited by a Possessive Pronoun, and when limited by a subsequent Noun, furnishes no slight argument in support of the construction defended above, of putting the Infin. in the Nom. case when itself governs a Noun in the Genitive; for we find the Infin. is invariably put in the Nom. when limited in its signification by a Possess. Pronoun.

When one Noun governs another in the Genitive, the Article is never joined to both, even though each be limited in its signification, as, mac an righ, the son of the king, not am mac an righ; taobh deas a' bhaile, the south side of the town, not an taobh deas a' bhaile^[109]. For the most part, the Article is thus joined to the latter Noun. Sometimes it is joined to the former Noun; as, an ceann tighe, the head of the family; an ceann iuil, the pilot; but in such instances the two Nouns figure as one complex term, like paterfamilias, rather than as two terms. The following examples, in which the Article is joined to both Nouns, seem to be totally repugnant to the Gaelic idiom: cuimhneachadh nan cùig aran nan cùig mìle, Matt. xvi. 9; nan seachd aran nan ceithir mìle, Matt. xvi. 10^[110].

A Possessive Pronoun joined to the Noun governed excludes, in like manner, the Article from the Noun governing; as, barr-iall a bhròige, the latchet of his shoe, not am barr-iall a bhròige; obair bhur lamh, the work of your hands, not an obair bhur lamh.

The Noun governed is sometimes in the Primary, sometimes in the Aspirated Form.

Proper Names of the Masculine Gender are in the Aspirated Form; as, bràthair Dhonuill, Donald's brother; uaigh Choluim, Columba's grave. Except when a final and an initial Lingual meet; as, clann Donuill, Donald's descendants; beinn Deirg Dargo's hill.

When both Nouns are Appellatives, and no word intervenes between them, the initial Form of the latter Noun follows, for the most part, that of an Adjective agreeing with the former Noun. See p. 144.

Thus, d' a ghàradh fiona, g' a ghàradh fiona, without the Article, Matt, xx. 1, 2, like do dhuine maith; but do 'n ghàradh fhiona, with the Article v. 4, 7, like do 'n duine mhaith. So we should say do 'n ard fhear-chiuil, rather than do 'n ard fhear-ciuil, as in the title of many of the Psalms.

Except.—If the latter Noun denote an individual of a species, that is, if it take the Article a before it in English, it is put in the primary form, although the former Noun be feminine; as, sùil caraid, the eye of a friend, not sùil charaid, like sùil mhor, duais fàidh, a prophet's reward, Matt. x. 4, not duais fhàidh, like duais mhòr. Chum maitheanais peacaidh, Acts, ii. 38, signifies for the remission of a sin; rather chum maitheanais pheacaidh for the remission of sin.

Section II.

Of the Government of Adjectives.

Adjectives of fulness govern the Genitive; as, làn uamhainn full of dread, Acts, ix. 6, buidheach beidh, satisfied with meat.

The first Comparative takes the Particle na than, before the following Noun; as, ni 's gile na an sneachdadh, whiter than the snow, b' fhaide gach mios na bliadhna, each month seemed longer than a year. Smith's "Ant. Poems," p. 9.

The second Comparative is construed thus: is feairrd mi so, I am the better for this; bu mhisd e am buille sin, he was the worse for that blow; cha truimid a' choluinn a ciall, the body is not the heavier for its understanding.

Superlatives are followed by the Preposition de or dhe of; as, am fear a 's àirde dhe 'n triuir, the man who is tallest of the three, the tallest man of the three.

Section III.

Of the Government of Verbs.

A Transitive Verb governs its object in the Nominative or Objective Case; as, mharbh iad an righ, they killed the king; na buail mi, do not strike me. The object is commonly placed after the Verb, but never between the Verb and its Nominative. [See Part III. Chap. I., Sect. IV.] Sometimes the object is placed, by way of emphasis, before the Verb; as, mise chuir e rìs ann am àite, agus esan chroch e, me he put again in my place, and him he hanged, Gen. xli. 13. An t-each agus a mharcach thilg e 's an fhairge, the horse and his rider hath he cast into the sea, Exod. xv. 1.

Many Transitive Verbs require a Preposition before their object; as, iarr air Donull, desire Donald; labhair ri Donull, speak to Donald; leig le Donull, let Donald alone; beannuich do Dhonull, salute Donald; fiosraich de Dhonull, enquire of Donald.

Bu was, requires the following initial Consonant to be aspirated; as, bu mhaith dhuit, it was good for you; bu chruaidh an gnothuch, it was a hard case; except initial d, and t which are not aspirated; as, bu dual duit, it was natural for you; bu trom an eallach, the burden was heavy; bu ghearr a lo, 's bu dubh a sgeul, short was her course, and sad was her story. Smith's "Ant. Poems."

Section IV.

Of the Government of Adverbs.

The collocation of Adverbs is for the most part arbitrary.

The Adverbs ro, gle, very, are placed before the Adjectives they modify, and require the following initial Consonant to be aspirated; as, ro bheag, very little; gle gheal, very white.

The Negative cha or cho not, when followed by a word beginning with a Labial or Palatal, requires the initial Consonant to be aspirated; as, cha mhòr e, it is not great; cha bhuail mi, I will not strike; cha chuala mi, I did not hear; but an initial Lingual remains unaspirated; as, cha dean mi, I will not do; cha tog e, he will not raise; cha soirbhich iad, they will not prosper. N is inserted between cha and an initial Vowel or an aspirated f; as, cha n-e, it is not; cha n-éigin, it is not necessary; cha n-fhaca mi, I saw not.

The Negative ni requires h before an initial Vowel; as, ni h-iad, they are not; ni h-eudar, it may not.

Section V.

Of the Government of Prepositions.

The Proper Prepositions aig, air, &c., govern the Dative; as, aig mo chois, at my foot; air mo laimh, on my hand. They are always placed before the word they govern. The following Prepositions require the Noun governed to be put in the Aspirated Form, viz., de, do, fuidh, fo, fa, gun, mar, mu, o, tre. Air sometimes governs the Noun in the Aspirated Form; as, air bharraibh sgiath na gaoithe, on the extremities of the wings of the wind, Psal. xviii. 10. Gun governs either the Nominative or Dative; as, gun chrioch, without end, Heb. vii. 16; gun chéill, without understanding, Psal. xxxii. 9; gun chloinn, Gen. xv. 2. Mar, and gus or gu, when prefixed to a Noun without the Article, usually govern the Dative case; as, mar nighin, as a daughter, 2 Sam. xii. 13; mar amhainn mhòir, like a great river, Psal. cv. 41; gu crìch mo shaoghail fein, to the end of my life-time, Psal. cxix. 33, xlviii. 10. But if the Article be joined to the Noun, it is governed in the Nominative; as, mar a' ghrian, like the sun, Psal. lxxxix. 36, 37; gus an sruth, to the stream, Deut. iii. 16; gus a' chrioch, to the end, Heb. iii. 6, 14. Eadar governs the Nom.; as, eadar a' chraobh agus a' chlach, between the tree and the stone. Eadar, when signifying between, requires the Primary Form; as, eadar maighstir agus muinntireach, between a master and a servant; when it signifies both, it requires the Aspirated Form; as, eadar shean agus òg, both old and young; eadar fheara agus mhnai, both men and women, Acts viii. 12.

The Prepositions as, gus, leis, ris, are used before the Monosyllables an, am, a'. The corresponding Prepositions a, gu, le, ri, often take an h before an initial Vowel; as, a h-Eirin, out of Ireland; gu h-ealamh, readily; le h-eagal, with fear.

The Improper Prepositions govern the following Noun in the Genitive; as, air feadh na tìre, throughout the land; an aghaidh an t-sluaigh, against the people; ré na h-ùine, during the time. It is manifest that this Genitive is governed by the Noun feadh, aghaidh, ré, &c., which is always included in the Preposition. See Part II. Chap. VII.

Prepositions are often prefixed to a Clause of a sentence; and then they have no regimen; as, gus am bord a ghiulan, to carry the table, Exod. xxv. 27; luath chum fuil a dhortadh, swift to shed blood, Rom. iii. 15. Edit. 1767; an déigh an obair a chriochnachadh, after finishing the work.

Section VI.

Of the Government of Conjunctions.

The Conjunctions agus and, no or, couple the same Cases of Nouns; as, air feadh chreagan agus choilltean, through rocks and woods; ag reubadh nam bruach 's nan crann, tearing the banks and the trees. When two or more Nouns, coupled by a Conjunction, are governed in the Dative by a Preposition, it is usual to repeat the Preposition before each Noun; as, air fad agus air leud, in length and in breadth; 'n an cridhe, 'n an cainnt, agus 'n am beus, in their heart, in their speech, and in their behaviour.

Co as, prefixed to an Adjective, commonly requires the initial consonant of the Adj. to be aspirated; as, co mhaith, as good, co ghrinn, as fine. But sometimes we find co mòr, as great, co buan, as durable, &c., without the aspirate. Sometimes the aspirate is transferred from the Adj. to the Conjunct. as, cho beag, as little, for co bheag. In the North Highlands, an adjective preceded by co is commonly put in the Comparative form; as, co miosa, as bad; co treise, as strong.

The Conjunctions mur if not, gu, gur that, are always joined to the Negative Mood; as, mur 'eil mi, if I be not; gu robh e, that he was. M or n is often inserted, euphoniæ causa, between gu and an initial Consonant; viz., m before a Labial, n before a Palatal or Lingual; as, gu-m faca tu, that you saw; gu-n dubhairt iad, that they said^[111].

The Conjunctions ma if, o, o'n because, since, are joined to the Pres. and Pret. Affirmative, and Fut. Subjunctive; as, ma ta e, if he be; o'n tha e, since he is; ma bhuail e, if he struck; o'n bhuail e, because he struck; ma bhuaileas tu, if you strike; o bhitheas sinn, since we shall be.

Na'm, na'n if, is joined only to the Pret. Subjunctive. The initial Consonant of the Verb loses its aspiration after this Conjunction; as, na'm bithinn, if I were; nan tuiteadh a' chraobh, if the tree should fall.

Ged although, is used before the Present and Preterite Affirmative, the Fut. Negative, and the Pret. Subjunctive; as, ged tha e, though he be; ged bha mi, though I was; ge do bhuail thu mi, though you struck me; ged bhuail thu mi, though you strike me; ged bheireadh e dhomh, though he should give me^[112].

PART IV.

OF DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION.

CHAPTER I.

OF DERIVATION.

The Parts of Speech which are formed by derivation from other words are Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs. These are chiefly derived from Nouns and Adjectives, and a few from Verbs.

I. Nouns.

Derivative Nouns may be classed as follows, according to the varieties of their termination.

1. Abstract Nouns in as, formed from Adjectives or Nouns; as, from ceart just, ceartas justice; from diomhan idle, vain, diomhanas idleness, vanity; from caraid a friend, cairdeas contracted for caraideas friendship; from namhaid an enemy, naimhdeas contracted for namhaideas enmity.

2. Abstract Nouns in achd, formed from Adjectives, and sometimes, though more rarely, from Verbs and Nouns; as, from naomh holy, naomhachd holiness; from domhain deep, doimhneachd contracted for domhaineachd depth; from righ a king, rioghachd a kingdom; coimhid to keep, coimheadachd keeping; clachair a mason, clachaireachd mason-work; gobhain a smith, goibhneachd contracted for gobhaineachd iron-work, or rather the trade or occupation of a smith.

3. Abstract Nouns formed from the genitive of Adjectives, by adding e; as, from dall gen. doill blind, doille blindness; from geal gen. gil white, gile whiteness; from leasg gen. leisg lazy, leisge laziness; tearc gen. teirc rare, teirce rarity; trom gen. truim heavy, truime heaviness; truagh gen. truaigh unhappy, truaighe misery; uasal gen. uasail noble, uasaile contr. uaisle or by metath. uailse nobility.

4. Abstract Nouns in ad, formed from the Comparative of Adjectives, and used in speaking of the degree of a quality; as, gilead whiteness, boidhchead beauty, doimhnead depth, lughad smallness, tainead thinness; these are construed with the Prepositions de, air; as, cha n-fhaca mi a samhuil air bhoidhchead, I have not seen her match for beauty; air a lughad or d' a lughad, however small it be.

5. Nouns in air or oir, ach, iche, derived, most of them, from nouns, and signifying persons or agents, as, pìobair a player on the pipe, from pìob a pipe; clàrsair a player on the harp, from clàrsach a harp; cealgair or cealgoir a deceiver, from cealg deceit; sealgair or sealgoir a huntsman, from sealg hunting; marcach a rider, from marc a horse; athach a man of terror, a gigantic figure, from atha fear; oibriche a workman, from obair work; sgeulaiche a reciter of tales, from sgeul a tale; ceannaiche a merchant, from ceannaich to buy^[113].

6. Diminutives in an, and in ag or og, formed from Nouns or Adjectives; as, lochan a small lake, from loch a lake; from braid theft, bradag a thievish girl; from ciar dark-coloured, ciarag a little dark-coloured creature. These Diminutives are often formed from the Genitive of their Primitives; as, from feur gen. feoir grass, feoirnean a pile of grass; moll gen. muill chaff, muillean a particle of chaff; folt gen. fuilt hair, fuiltean a single hair; clag gen. cluig a bell, cluigean a little bell; gual gen. guail coal, guailnean a cinder; smùr gen. smùir dust, smùirnean a particle of dust, a mote; clòimh plumage, clòimhneag a small feather, a flake of snow.

Some Nouns are formed in an, which are not Diminutives; as, from lùb to bend, lùban a bow; from buail to beat, thresh, buailtean a beater, or thresher, applied to that part of the flail which threshes out the grain.

7. Collective Nouns in ridh or ri, derived from Nouns or Adjectives; as, from òg young, òigridh youth, in the collective sense of the word; from mac a son, macruidh sons, young men, Psal. cxlviii. 12;^[114] from laoch a hero, laochruidh a band of heroes, Psal. xxix. 1. Macfarlan's Paraph. vi. 15, from ceol music, ceolraidh the muses. A. Macdonald's Songs, p. 7, from cos the foot, coisridh infantry, a party on foot. M^cIntyre's Songs, Edin. 1768, p. 110, from gas a lad, gasradh a band of domestic attendants. O'Brien's Ir. Dict. voc. gas; eachradh, eachruith cavalry, Fingal. IV. 299, Carthon, 59.—This termination is probably the Noun ruith a troop. See Lhuyd et O'Brien, in voc.^[115]

8. Nouns in ach, chiefly Patronymics, formed from Proper Names, thus; from Donull Donald, is formed Donullach a man of the name of Macdonald; from Griogar Gregor, Griogarach a Macgregor; so Leodach a Macleod, Granntach a Grant, &c., from Albainn Scotland, Albannach a Scotsman; from Eirin Ireland, Eirineach an Irishman. These Nouns form their Plural regularly, Donullaich, Leodaich, Albannaich, Eirinich. So the following Gentile Nouns, which occur in the Gaelic Scriptures, are regularly formed from their respective Primitives, Partuich Parthians, Medich Medes, Elamuich Elamites, Acts ii. 9. Macedonaich Macedonians, 2 Cor. ix. 2, 4. See also Gen. xv. 19, 20, 21; Exod. xxiii. 23, 28.^[116].

9. Collective Nouns in ach; as, duille a leaf, duilleach foliage; giuthas fir, giuthasach a fir wood; iughar yew, iugharach a yew copse; fiadh a deer, fiadhach deer, a herd of deer; crion diminutive, shrunk, crionach decayed wood.

II. Adjectives.

1. Adjectives in ach, formed generally from Nouns; as, from fìrinn truth, fìrinneach true, faithful; from sunnt glee, sunntach cheerful; cràdh pain, cràiteach painful; togradh desire, togarrach willing, desirous.

2. Adjectives in mhor or or, derived from Nouns; as, from àdh felicity, adhmhor happy, blessed; from feoil flesh, feolmhor carnal; from neart strength, neartmhor strong.

3. Adjectives in ail derived from Nouns; as, from fear man, fearail manful; from caraid a friend, cairdail contr. for caraidail friendly; from namhaid an enemy, naimhdail contr. for namhaidail hostile; from sùrd alertness, surdail alert^[117].

4. A few Adjectives in ta or da, derived from Nouns; as, Gaelta belonging to the Gael; Eireanda Irish; Romhanta Roman; Kirk. fìreanta righteous, Matt. xxiii. 35.

III. Verbs.

Verbs in ich, for the most part Transitive, and implying causation, derived from Nouns or Adjectives; as, from geal white, gealaich to whiten; naomh holy, naomhaich to sanctify; cruinn round, cruinnich to gather together; lamh the hand, laimhsich to handle; cuimhne memory, cuimhnich to remember. A few are Intransitive; as, from crith tremor, criothnuich to tremble; fann feeble, fannuich to faint.

CHAPTER II.

OF COMPOSITION.

All compound words in Gaelic consist of two component parts, exclusive of the derivative terminations enumerated in the preceding Chapter. Of these component parts, the former may be conveniently named the Prepositive, the latter the Subjunctive term. It sometimes happens, though rarely, that the Subjunctive term also is a compound word, which must itself be decompounded in order to find out the Root.

In compounding words, the usual mode has been, to prefix to the term denoting the principal idea the word denoting the accessory idea or circumstance by which the signification of the principal word is modified. Accordingly we find Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs modified by prefixing to them a Noun, an Adjective, a Verb, or a Preposition.

In forming compound words, a Rule of very general application is, that when the Subjunctive term begins with a Consonant, it is aspirated. From this Rule, however, are to be excepted, 1. Words beginning with s followed by a mute, which never admit the aspirate; 2. Words beginning with a Lingual when the Prepositive term ends in n; 3. A few other instances in which there is an euphonic agreement between the Consonants thus brought into apposition, which would be violated if either of them were aspirated.

These observations will be found exemplified in the following Compounds:—

I. Words Compounded with a Noun prefixed.

Nouns Compounded with a Noun.

Beart dress, equipage, ceann head—ceann-bheart head-dress, armour for the head.

Fàinn a ring, cluas the ear—cluas-fhainn an ear-ring.

Galar a distemper, crith shaking—crith-ghalar distemper attended with shaking, the palsy.

Oglach a servant, bean (in composition, ban) a woman—banoglach a female servant.

Fàidh a prophet, ban-fhaidh a prophetess.

Tighearn a lord, baintighearn a lady.

Adjectives Compounded with a Noun.

Geal white, bian the skin—biangheal white-skinned.

Lom bare, cas the foot—caslom bare-foot; ceann the head—ceannlom bare-headed.

Biorach pointed, sharp, cluas the ear—cluasbhiorach having pointed ears.

Verbs Compounded with a Noun.

Luaisg to rock or toss, tonn a wave—tonn-luaisg to toss on the waves.

Sleamhnuich to slide, cùl the back—cùl-sleamhnuich to back-slide.

Folaich to hide, feall deceit—feall-fholaich to lie in wait.

II. Words Compounded with an Adjective Prefixed.

Nouns Compounded with an Adjective.

Uisge water, fior true, genuine—fioruisge spring-water.

Airgiod silver, beo alive—beo-airgiod quick-silver.

Sgolt a crack, crion shrunk, decayed—crionsgolt a fissure in wood caused by drought or decay.

Criochan bounds, regions, garbh rough—garbhchriochan rude mountainous regions.

Adjectives Compounded with an Adjective.

Donn brown, dubh black—dubh-dhonn dark-brown.

Gorm blue, dubh black—dubh-ghorm dark-blue.

Briathrach (not in use) from briathar a word, deas ready—deas-bhriathrach of ready speech, eloquent.

Seallach (not in use) from sealladh sight, geur sharp—geur-sheallach sharp-sighted.

Verbs Compounded with an Adjective.

Ruith to run, dian keen, eager—dian-ruith to run eagerly.

Lean to follow, geur sharp, severe—geur-lean to persecute.

Buail to strike, trom heavy—trom-buail to smite sore, discomfit.

Ceangail to bind, dlùth closer—dlùth-cheangail to bind fast.

III. Words Compounded with a Verb prefixed.

Art a stone, tarruing to draw—tarruing-art load-stone.

Sùil the eye, meall to beguile—meall-shuil a leering eye.

IV. Words Compounded with a Preposition.

Radh a saying, roimh before—roimh-radh preface, prologue.

Solus light, eadar between—eadar-sholus twilight.

Mìnich to explain, eadar-mhìnich to interpret.

Gearr to cut, timchioll about—timchioll-ghearr circumcise.

Lot to wound, troimh through—troimh-lot to stab, pierce through.

Examples of words compounded with an inseparable Preposition are already given in Part II. Chap. VII.

Compound Nouns retain the gender of the principal Nouns in their simple state. Thus crith-ghalar palsy, is masculine, because the principal Noun, Galar distemper, is masculine, although the accessary Noun crith, by which galar is qualified, be feminine. So cìs-mhaor is masculine though cìs be a feminine Noun, Luke xviii. 11; cìs-mheasadh ought also to be masculine, Acts v. 37. Except Nouns compounded with Bean woman, which are all feminine, though the simple principal Noun be masculine, because the compound word denotes an object of the female sex; as, oglach a servant, masculine, but banoglach a maid-servant, feminine, caraid a friend, masculine, bancharaid a female friend, feminine.

Compound words are declined in the same manner as if they were uncompounded.

In writing compound words, the component parts are sometimes separated by a hyphen, and sometimes not. The use of the hyphen does not seem to be regulated by any uniform practice. In the case of two vowels coming in apposition, the insertion of a hyphen seems indispensable; because, by the analogy of Gaelic orthography, two Vowels, belonging to different syllables, are scarcely ever placed next to each other without some mark of separation^[118]. Thus so-aomaidh, easily induced, propense; so-iomchair, easily carried; do-innsidh, difficult to be told; and not soamaidh, doinnsidh, &c., without the hyphen.

It was formerly remarked, Part I., that almost all Gaelic Polysyllables are accented on the first syllable. When, in pronouncing compound words, the accent is placed on the first syllable, the two terms appear to be completely incorporated into one word. When, on the other hand, the accent is placed, not on the first syllable of the Compound, but on the first syllable of the Subjunctive term, the two terms seem to retain their respective powers, and to produce their effect separately, and instead of being incorporated into one word, to be rather collaterally connected. A rule may then be derived from the pronunciation for the use of the hyphen in writing Compounds, viz., to insert the hyphen between the component parts, when the Prepositive term is not accented. Thus it is proposed to write aineolach ignorant, antromaich to exaggerate, comhradh conversation, dobheart a bad action, soisgeul Gospel, banoglach a maidservant, &c., without a hyphen; but to write an-fhiosrach unacquainted, ban-fhiosaiche a female fortune-teller, co-fhreagarach corresponding, so-fhaicsin easily seen, &c., with a hyphen^[119]. By this rule, a correspondence is maintained, not only between the writing and the pronunciation, but likewise between the written language and the ideas expressed by it. A complex idea, whose parts are most closely united in the mind, is thus denoted by one undivided word; whereas an idea composed of parts more loosely connected, is expressed by a word, whereof the component parts are distinguished, and exhibited separately to the eye. Thus also the Gaelic scholar would have one uniform direction to follow in reading, viz., to place the accent always on the first syllable of an undivided word, or member of a word. If any exception be allowed, it must be only in the case already stated of two vowels coming in apposition, as beo-airgiod quicksilver.

Let it be observed that, according to this rule, an Adjective preceding a Noun can never, but in the case just mentioned, be connected with it by a hyphen. For if the accent be wholly transferred from the Noun to the Adjective, then they are to be written as one undivided word; as, garbhchriochan highlands; but if the accent be not so transferred, the Adjective and the Noun are to be written as two separate words; as, seann duine an old man, deagh chomhairle good advice, droch sgeul a bad tale.

It not unfrequently happens that two Nouns, whereof the one qualifies the meaning of the other, and connected by the common grammatical relation of the one governing the other in the Genitive, come through use to be considered as denoting only one complex object. The two Nouns in this case are sometimes written together in one word, and thus form a Compound of a looser structure than those which have been considered. Such are ceann-cinnidh, the head of a tribe or clan; ceann-tighe, the head of a family; ceann-feadhna, the leader of an army; fear-turnis, a traveller; luchd-faire, watchmen; iobairt-pheacaidh, a sin-offering; urlar-bualaidh, a threshing-floor; fear-bainse, a bridegroom; crith-thalmhain, an earth-quake; crios-guailne, a shoulder-belt, &c. In writing Compound Nouns of this description, the two Nouns are never written in one undivided word, but always separated by a hyphen. It comes to be a question, however, in many instances of one Noun governing another in the Genitive, whether such an expression is to be considered as a compound term, and the words to be connected by a hyphen in writing, or whether they are to be written separately, without any such mark of composition. An observation that was made in treating of the Government of Nouns may help us to an answer, and furnish an easy rule in the case in question. It was remarked that when one Noun governed another in the Genitive, the Article was never joined to both; that for the most part, it was joined to the Noun governed, but sometimes to the Noun governing, that in the latter case, the two Nouns seemed to figure as one compound term, denoting one complex idea. If this last remark hold true, it may be laid down as a rule that in every instance of a Noun governing another in the Genitive, where the Article is or may be prefixed to the governing Noun, there the two Nouns ought to be connected by a hyphen in writing; otherwise not. Thus we can say, without impropriety, an ceann-feadhna, the commander; an luchd-coimhid, the keepers; and the Nouns are accordingly considered as Compounds, and written with a hyphen. But it would be contrary to the usage of the language to say, am mullach craige, the top of a rock; an t-uachdar talmhain, the surface of the ground. Accordingly it would be improper to write a hyphen between the Nouns in these and similar examples.

The different effects of these two modes of writing, with or without the hyphen, is very observable in such instances as the following:—Ainm dùthcha, the name of a country, as Scotland, Argyle, &c.; ainm-dùthcha, a country name, or patronymic, as Scotsman, Highlander, &c.; clann Donuill, Donald's children; clann-Donuill, the Macdonalds.

Though few have exerted themselves hitherto in explaining the structure of the Gaelic language, in respect of its inflections, construction, and collocation, this cannot be said to be the case with regard to Etymology. Much has been attempted, and something has been done, toward analysing single vocables, particularly names of places. But this analysis seems to have been too often made rather in a way of random conjecture than by a judicious regard to the analogy of Derivation and Composition. The passion for analysing has even induced some to assert that all true Gaelic Primitives consist of but one syllable, that all Polysyllables are either derived or compounded, and therefore that there is room to search for their etymon. This seems to be carrying theory too far. It appears a fruitless and rather chimerical attempt to propose a system of directions by which all Polysyllables whatever may be resolved into component parts, and traced to a root of one syllable. All I have thought it necessary to do is to methodize and exemplify those general principals of Etymology which are obvious and unquestioned, and which regulate the composition and derivation of those classes of words whereof the analysis may be traced with some probability of success.

EXERCISES IN READING, EXPLAINING, AND ANALYZING.

From an Address to the Soldiers of a Highland Regiment, by D. Smith, M.D.

Theid an deadh shaighdear gu h-aobhach suilbhear an dàil gach tuiteamais a thig 'n a chrannchur. Ach 's e a's nòs do 'n droch shaighdear a bhi gearan 's a' talach air gach làimh; beadaidh ri lìnn socair, is diombach ann eiric caoimhneis; lag-chridheach ri h-am cruachais, agus dìblidh ri h-uchd feuma.

In English.

The good soldier will advance, with spirit and cheerfulness, to any service that falls in his way. But it is the practice of the bad soldier to be complaining and grumbling on all occasions; saucy in time of ease, and peevish in return for kindness; faint-hearted under hardships, and feeble in encountering exigency.

Analysis.

Theid. 3. per. sing. Fut. Affirm, of the irregular Verb Rach, go.

An. Nom. sing. of the Article an, the.

Deadh. An indeclinable Adjective, always placed before its Noun.

Shaighdear. Nom. sing. of the mas. noun saighdear, a soldier, in the aspirated form, because preceded by the Adj. deadh. Gram. p. 145.

Gu. A proper Preposition, to, for.

Aobhach. An Adject. of the first Declension, joyous, having an h before it, because preceded by the Prep. gu. Gram. p. 161. Gu h-aobhach, joyfully, cheerfully, an adverbial phrase. Gram. p. 109.

Suilbhear. An Adject. cheerful. Gu is to be supplied from the former phrase; gu suilbhear, cheerfully, an adverbial phrase.

An dàil. An improper Preposition, to meet, to face, to encounter; made up of the proper Prep. ann, in, and the Noun dàil, meeting. Gram. p. 121.

Gach. An indeclinable Adj. Pronoun, each, every.

Tuiteamais. Gen. sing. of the mas. Noun tuiteamas, an occurrence, accident, governed in the Gen. case by the improp. Prep. an dàil (Gram. p. 161), derived from the Verb tuit. Infinitive tuiteam, to fall, befal.

A. Nom. sing. Relative Pronoun, who, which.

Thig. Fut. Affirm. of the irregular Verb thig, come.

'N. Contracted for ann, a proper Prep., in.

A. Possessive Pronoun, his.

Chrannchur. Mas. Noun, a lot; governed in the Dat. by the Prep. ann; in the aspirated form after the adject. Pron. a, 'his'—compounded of crann, a lot, and cur, casting, the Infinitive of the Verb cuir, to put, cast.

Ach. Conjunction, but. Hebr. אד.

'S. for is, Pres. Indic. of the Verb is, I am. 'S e a 's it is [that] which is.

Nòs. Noun mas., custom, habit.

Do. Prep. to.

An. the article, the.

Droch. indeclinable Adject. bad; always placed before its Noun.

Shaighdear. mas. Noun, soldier; governed in the Dative by the Prep. do; in the aspir. form after the Adject. droch.

A bhi. for do bhi or do bhith, Infinit. of the irregular Verb bi, to be.

Gearan. Infin. of the obsolete Verb gearain, to complain, ag being understood; ag gearan equivalent to a present Participle, complaining. Gram. p. 86.

'S. for agus, conjunction, and.

A' talach. for ag talach, complaining, repining; Infin. of the obsolete Verb talaich, to complain of a thing or person.

Air. Prep. on.

Gach. Adject. Pron. indeclin. each, every.

Làimh. dat. sing. of the fem. Noun làmh, a hand; governed in the Dat. by the Prep. air, on. Air gach làimh, on every hand.

Beadaidh. Adject. nice, fond of delicacies, saucy, petulant.

Ri. Prep. to, at.

Lìnn. Noun fem. an age, period, season. Ri lìnn, during the time of any event, or currency of any period; ri lìnn Fhearghuis, in the time, or reign of Fergus; gu faigheamaid sìth r' ar lìnn, that we may have peace in our time.

Socair. Noun fem., ease, conveniency; governed in the Gen. by the Noun lìnn.

Is. for agus, Conjunct. and.

Diombach, or diùmach. Adject. displeased, indignant; derived from the Noun diom or diùm, indignation.

Ann. Prep. governing the Dat. in.

Eiric. Noun femin., requital, compensation; governed in the Dat. by the Prep. ann.

Caoimhneis. Gen. sing. of the mas. Noun caoimhneas, kindness; governed in the Gen. by the noun eiric, derived from the Adject. caomh, gentle, kind.

Lag-chridheach. Adject. faint-hearted; compounded of the Adject. lag, weak, and cridhe, the heart.

Ri. Prep. to, at.

Am. Noun masc., time; governed in the Dat. case by the Prep. ri, and preceded by h. Gram. p. 161.

Cruachais. Gen. sing. of the mas. Noun cruachas, hardship, strait; governed in the Gen. by the noun am; compounded of the Adject. cruaidh, hard, and càs, danger, extremity.

Agus. Conjunct., and.

Dìblidh. Adject., feeble, silly.

Uchd. Noun mas. breast, chest; hence it signifies an ascent, a steep; in the Dat. case, preceded by h, after the Prep. ri: ri h-uchd, in ascending, breasting, encountering, assailing.

Feuma. Gen. sing. of the Noun mas. feum, necessity, exigency; governed in the Gen. by the Noun uchd.

Extract from an old Fingalian Tale or Legend.

Dh' imich Garbh mac Stairn agus Dual a dh' fhaicinn Fhinn agus a threun fheara colgach, iomraiteach ann an gniomharaibh arm. Bha Fionn 's an àm sin 'n a thigheadas samhraidh am Buchanti. 'N an turus d'a ionnsuidh, ghabh iad beachd air gach gleann agus faoin mhonadh, air gach allt agas caol choirean. Ghabh iad sgeul de gach coisiche agus gach fear a thachair 'n an còir. Ann an gleann nan cuach agus nan lon, chunnaic bùth taobh sruthain; chaidh a steach, dh' iarr deoch; dh' eirich ribhinn a b' aluinne snuadh a dh' fhàilteachadh an turuis le sìth. Thug i biadh dhoibh r'a itheadh, dibhe ri òl; dh' iarr an sgeul le cainnt thlà. Bhuail gaol o a sùil an Garbh borb, agus dh' innis cia as doibh. "Thainig sinn o thìr nan crann, far an lionor sonn—mac righ Lochlainn mise—m' ainm Garbh na'm b' aill leat—esan Dual, o thìr nam beann, a thuinich ann Albainn o thuath—a ghabhail cairdeis gun sgàth agus aoidheachd o 'n àrd righ Fionn, sud fàth ar turuis a Chiabh na maise—ciod am bealach am buail sinn? seol ar cos gu teach Fhinn, bi dhuinn mar iùl, is gabh duais." "Duais cha do ghabh mi riamh, ars an nighean bu bhlàithe sùil 's bu deirge gruaidh; cha b' e sud àbhaist Theadhaich nam beann éilde, 'g am bu lionor dàimheach 'n a thalla, 'g am bu tric tathaich o thuath—ni mise dhuibh iùl." Gu gleann-sìth tharladh na fir; gleann an tric guth feidh is loin; gleann nan glas charn is nan scor; gleann nan sruth ri uisg is gaoith. Thachair orra buaghar bho, is rinn dhoibh iùl; thug dhoibh sgeul air duthaich nan creag, air fir agus air mnaibh, air fàs shliabh agus charn, air neart feachd, air rian nan arm, air miann sloigh, agus craobhthuinidh nam Fiann.

In English.

Garva the son of Starno and Dual, went to visit Fingal and his brave warriors, renowned for feats of arms. Fingal was at that time in his summer residence at Buchanti. On their journey thither, they took a view of every valley and open hill, every brook and narrow dell. They asked information of every passenger and person that came in their way. In the glen of cuckoos and ouzles they observed a cottage by the side of a rivulet. They entered; asked drink, a lady of elegant appearance arose and kindly bade them welcome. She gave the food to eat, liquor to drink. In mild speech she inquired their purpose. Love from her eye smote the rough Garva, and he told whence they were. "We are come from the land of Pines, where many a hero dwells—the son of Lochlin's king am I—my name is Garva, be pleased to know—my comrade is Dual, from the land of hills, his residence is in the north of Albion. To accept the hospitality and confidential friendship of the mighty prince Fingal, this is the object of our journey, O Lady fair^[120]; say, by what pass shall we shape our course? Direct our steps to the mansion of Fingal, be our guide, and accept a reward." "Reward I never took," said the damsel of softest eye and rosiest cheek; "such was not the manner of [my father] Tedaco of the hill of hinds; many were the guests in his hall, frequent his visitors from the North,—I will be your guide." The chiefs reach Glenshee, where is heard the frequent voice of deer and elk; glen of green mounts and cliffs; glen of many streams in time of rain and wind. A keeper of cattle met them, and directed their course. He gave the information concerning the country of rocks; concerning its inhabitants male and female; the produce of moor and mount; the military force, the fashion of the armour; the favourite pursuits of the people; and the pedigree of the Fingalians.

Extract from Bishop Carsuel's Gaelic translation of the
Confession of Faith, Forms of Prayer, &c., used in the Reformed
Church of Scotland; Printed in the year 1567.

(From the Epistle Dedicatory.)

Acht ata ni cheana is mor an leathtrom agas anuireasbhuidh ata riamh orainde gaoidhil alban & eireand, tar an gcuid eile don domhan, gan ar gcanamhna gaoidheilge do chur agcló riamh mar ataid agcanamhna & adteangtha féin agcló ag gach uile chinel dhaoine oile sa domhan, & ata uireasbhuidh is mó ina gach uireasbhuidh oraind, gan an Biobla naomhtha do bheith agcló gaoidheilge againd, marta sè agcló laidne agas bherla agas ingach teangaidh eile osin amach, agas fós gan seanchus arsean no ar sindsear do bheith mar an gcedna agcló againd riamh, acht ge tá cuid eigin do tseanchus ghaoidheal alban agas eireand sgriobhtha aleabhruibh lámh, agas adtamhlorgaibh fileadh & ollamhan, agas asleachtaibh suadh. Is mortsaothair sin re sgriobhadh do laimh, ag fechain an neithe buailtear sa chló araibrisge agas ar aithghiorra bhios gach én ni dhá mhed da chriochnughadh leis. Agas is mor an doille agas andorchadas peacaidh agas aineolais agas indtleachda do lucht deachtaidh agas sgriobhtha agas chumhdaigh na gaoidheilge, gurab mó is mian leo agas gurab mó ghnathuidheas siad eachtradha dimhaoineacha buaidheartha bregacha saoghalta do cumadh ar thuathaibh dédhanond agas ar mhacaibh mileadh agas arna curadhaibh agas fhind mhac cumhaill gona fhianaibh agas ar mhóran eile nach airbhim agas nach indisim andso do chumhdach, agas do choimhleasughagh, do chiond luadhuidheachta dimhaonigh an tsaoghail dfhaghail doibhféin, ina briathra disle Dé agas slighthe foirfe na firinde do sgriobhadh, agas dheachtadh, agas do chumhdach.

English Translation.

[From the Report of the Committee of the
Highland Society of Scotland, appointed to inquire into the
nature and authenticity of the Poems of Ossian.]

But there is one great disadvantage which we the Gaeil of Scotland and Ireland labour under, beyond the rest of the world, that our Gaelic language has never yet been printed, as the language of every other race of men has been. And we labour under a disadvantage which is still greater than every other disadvantage, that we have not the Holy Bible printed in Gaelic, as it has been printed in Latin and in English, and in every other language; and also that we have never yet had any account printed of the antiquities of our country, or of our ancestors; for though we have some accounts of the Gaeil of Scotland and Ireland, contained in manuscripts, and in the genealogies of bards and historiographers, yet there is great labour in writing them over with the hand, whereas the work which is printed, be it ever so great, is speedily finished. And great is the blindness and sinful darkness, and ignorance and evil design of such as teach, and write, and cultivate the Gaelic language, that, with the view of obtaining for themselves the vain rewards of this world, they are more desirous, and more accustomed, to compose vain, tempting, lying, worldly histories, concerning the Tuath de dannan, and concerning warriors and champions, and Fingal the son of Cumhal, with his heroes, and concerning many others which I will not at present enumerate or mention, in order to maintain or reprove, than to write and teach and maintain the faithful words of God, and of the perfect way of truth^[121].

From the Preface to a Metrical Version of the Book of Psalms
in Gaelic, by Mr Robert Kirk, Minister of the Gospel
at Balquhidder; Printed in the year 1684.

Ataid na Psalma taitneamhach, tarbhach: beag nach mion-fhlaitheas lán dainglibh, Cill fhonnmhar le ceol naomhtha. Mur abholghort Eden, lionta do chrannaibh brioghmhoire na beatha, & do luibhennibh iocshlainteamhail, amhluidh an leabhar Psalmso Dhaibhioth, ata na liaghais ar uile anshocair na nanma. Ata an saoghal & gach beó chreatuir da bfuil ann, na chlarsigh; an duine, se is Clairseoir & duanaire, chum moladh an mor-Dhia mirbhuileach do sheinn; & ata Daibhidh do ghná mar fhear don chuideachd bhias marso ag caoin-chaint gu ceolmhar ma nard-Rí.... Do ghabhas mar chongnamh don obairsi, dioghlum ughdairidh an uile cháil, ar sheannós, phriomh chreideamh & eachdardha na nGaoidheal, sgriobhta & cló-bhuailte: achd gu ba reula iuil & soluis dhamh, brídh na nSalm fein. Anois maseadh a Chomharbadha ro chaomh, ata mar phlaneidi dhealroidh ag sdiurughadh na ngcorp ioch dardha gan mhonmar, is deaghmhaise dhaoibh an tsaothairse a sgrudadh & a ghnathughadh gu neimhfhiat, gan ghuth ar bheiginmhe & neimhnitheachd an tsaothairigh. Griosam oraibhse a Uaisle, & a Thuatha charthanacha araon, gun bheith mur thacharain ar luaidrean a nunn & a nall go sbailpe breigi; achd le gcroidhibh daingne, dosgartha, deagh-fhreumhaighte, druididh re Firinn, Ceart, & Ceannsachd, mar fhuraileas na psalma: Ata clu & tarbha a nsdriocadh don choir; call & masladh a ntuitim le heugcoir.