Sismondi hastily assumes the fact, that Machiavelli was implicated in
this plot; but, on the contrary, there seems every proof that he took no
part in it whatever; and at this very time he was again employed by the
reigning powers.
1521.
Ætat.
52.
The Minor Friars were assembled in chapter at Carpi, in the duchy of
Modena. The government of Florence wished to obtain from them, that
their republic should be formed by their order, into a distinct
province, separated from the rest of Tuscany. At the instance of
cardinal Julius, Machiavelli was charged with this negotiation. A few
days after his arrival at Carpi, the council of the company of the
woollen trade commissioned him to procure a good preacher for the
metropolitan church at Florence, during the ensuing Lent. His letters to
his employers, on these occasions, are as serious and methodical as
during any other legation; but in his heart he disdained the petty
occupation. His friend Francesco Guicciardini, the celebrated historian,
was then governor of Modena; and several amusing letters passed between
them while Machiavelli was at Carpi. Guicciardini writes: "When I read
your titles of ambassador to republics and friars, and consider the
number of kings and princes with whom you have formerly negotiated, I am
reminded of Lysander, who, after so many victories, had the office of
distributing provisions to the army he had formerly commanded; and I say
that, though the aspects of men, and the exterior appearances of things,
are changed, the same circumstances perpetually return, and we witness
no event that did not take place in times gone by."
Machiavelli replies with greater gaiety:—"I can tell you that, on the arrival of your messenger, with a bow to the ground, and a declaration that he was sent express and in haste, every one arose with so many bows and so much clamour, that all things seemed turned topsy-turvy. Many persons asked me the news; and I, to increase my importance, said that the emperor was expected at Trent, that the Swiss were assembling a new diet, and that the king of France was going to have an interview with the king of England; so that all stood open-mouthed and cap in hand to hear me. I am surrounded by a circle now, while writing, who, seeing me occupied upon so long a letter, wonder and regard me as one possessed; and I, to excite their surprise, pause now and then, and look very wise; and they are deceived. If they knew what I was writing, their wonder would in crease. Pray send one of your men again; and let him hurry, and arrive in a heat, so that these people may be more and more astonished; for thus you will do me honour, and the exercise will be good for the horse at this season of the year. I would now write you a longer letter, if I were willing to tire out my imagination; but I wish to preserve it fresh for to-morrow. Remember me, and farewell.
"Your servant,
"NICCOLÒ MACHIAVELLI,
"Ambassador to the Minor Friars.
"Carpi, 17th of May, 1521."
This letter, as well as well as one of Guicciardini's on this occasion,
has been mutilated by a person, whose scrupulous good taste was offended
by the tone of some of the pleasantries. That was not the age of decorum
either in speech or action.
1524.
Ætat.
55.
The cardinal Julius had commissioned Machiavelli to write the history of
Florence, and he proceeded in it as far as the death of Lorenzo de'
Medici. He writes to Guicciardini, on the 30th of August, 1524, "I am
staying in the country, occupied in writing my history; and I would give
fivepence—I will not say more—to have you here, that I might
show you where I am, as in certain particulars I wish to know whether you
would be offended most by my elevated or humble manner of treating them. I
try, nevertheless, to write so as, by telling the truth, to displease no
one."
1526.
Ætat.
57.
Cardinal Julius had now become pope, under the title of Clement VII. He paid Machiavelli a regular but very limited salary as historiographer. Having brought it down to the time of the death of Lorenzo de' Medici, he made a volume of it, and dedicated it to the pope. On this occasion he writes to Guicciardini, "I have received a gratification of 100 ducats for my history. I am beginning again; and relieve myself by blaming the princes who have done every thing they can to bring us to this pass." He signs himself to this letter, Niccolò Machiavelli, historian, comic and tragic author,—storico, comico, et tragico.
The condition of Italy was at this period most deplorable. The French had been driven from Italy after the battle of Pavia; but no sooner was that power humbled, than the various states began to regard with alarm the ascendancy of the emperor Charles V. A confederacy was formed by the chief among them, for the purpose of holding this powerful monarch in check; and he sent the constable Bourbon to Milan to preserve that duchy. Thus there were two armies in the heart of the peninsula, both unpaid, both lawless, and destructive to friends as well as to enemies. The emperor sent no supplies to Bourbon; and the pope, who was at the head of the Italian league, showed himself so timid and vaccillating, and, above all, so penurious, as to bring down ruin on his cause.
Bourbon was unable to keep his troops together, except by promises of plunder; and he led them southward by slow advances, with the intention of enriching them by the sack of Florence or Rome. The danger was nearest to the former city; and Clement VII. considered it requisite to put it in a state of defence. Machiavelli was employed to inspect the progress of the fortifications. He executed his task diligently, and, as was his wont, put his whole heart and soul into his occupation. "My head is so full of bulwarks," he says, "that nothing else will enter it."
The imperial army continued to advance; and the Florentine government,
in great alarm, sent Machiavelli to Guicciardini, governor of Modena,
and lieutenant-general of the papal forces, to take measures with regard
to the best method of securing the republic; and it was agreed that, if
the imperialists advanced, the forces of the church should be sent in
aid of Florence. The winter season and other circumstances delayed the
operations of the imperialists, but early in the following spring the
danger grew imminent.
1527.
Ætat.
58.
Bourbon had arrived with his army to the vicinity of Bologna; and there
was every likelihood that his army would traverse Tuscany, and attack
Florence itself. Machiavelli again went to Parma, to advise with
Guicciardini, to watch over the movements of the hostile army, and to
send frequent intelligence to Florence of their proceedings. The
republic wished that the troops of the Italian league should assemble at
Bologna, and be on the spot to guard the frontiers of Tuscany.
The imperialists continued to advance: the pope, alarmed by their progress, entered into a treaty for peace with the emperor; but it was uncertain whether the army under Bourbon would agree to it. Machiavelli continued for some weeks at Parma, and then accompanied Guicciardini to Bologna, watching their movements. It was doubtful what road they would take on proceeding to Rome; but the chances still were, that they would pass through Tuscany. The army now removed to Castel San Giovanni, ten miles from Bologna, where they remained some days, detained by the bad weather, and overflowing of the low lands, caused by the melting of the snow, which had fallen heavily around Bologna: they were in danger, while thus forced to delay, of being reduced to great straits for want of provisions. "If this weather lasts two days longer," Machiavelli wrote to his government, "the duke of Ferrara may, sleeping and sitting, put an end to the war."
A truce was concluded between Clement VII. and the ministers of Charles V.; but it was not acceded to by Bourbon and his army. The pope, however, unaware of this circumstance, dismissed his troops, and remained wholly unguarded. The imperialists, rendered unanimous through the effects of hunger and poverty, continued to advance. They entered Tuscany; but, without staying to attack Florence, they hurried on by forced marches and falling unexpectedly on Rome, took it by assault; and that dreadful sack took place, which filled the city with death and misery, and spread alarm throughout Italy. Machiavelli followed the Italian army, as it advanced to deliver the pope, who was besieged in the Castel Sant' Angelo. From the environs of Rome he repaired to Cività Vecchia, where Andrea Doria commanded a fleet; and from him he obtained the means of repairing by sea to Leghorn. Before embarking, he received intelligence of the revolution of Florence. On hearing of the taking of Rome, on the 6th of May, the republicans rose against the Medici; and they were forced to quit the city. The government was changed on the 16th of May, and things were restored to the state they were in 1512.
Machiavelli returned to Florence full of hope. He considered that the power was now in the hands of his friends, and that he should again enter on public life under prosperous auspices. His hopes were disappointed—public feeling was against him: his previous services, his imprisonment and torture, were forgotten; while it was remembered that, since 1513, he had been continually aiming at getting employed by the Medici, against whom the popular feeling was violently excited. He had succeeded at last; and was actually in their service, when they were driven from the city. These circumstances rendered him displeasing to men who considered themselves the deliverers of their country. Machiavelli was disappointed by their neglect, and deeply wounded by their distrust. He fell ill; and taking some pills, to which he was in the habit of having recourse when indisposed, he grew worse, and died two days after—on the 22d of June, 1527—in the 59th year of his age.
Paul Jovius, his old enemy, insinuates that he took the medicine for the sake of destroying himself,—a most clumsy sort of suicide,—but there is no foundation whatever for this report.[130] His wife Marietta, the daughter of Ludovico Corsini, survived him; and he left five children,—four sons and one daughter. He had made a will in 1511, when secretary of the republic; and in 1522 he made another, which only differs in details—the spirit is the same. He leaves his "beloved wife" an addition to her dower, and divides the rest of his slight fortune between his children. Marietta is left guardian and trustee of the younger children—to continue till they were nineteen—with a clause forbidding them to demand any account of money spent; and mentions that he reposes entire confidence in her.
Machiavelli was of middle stature, rather thin, and of olive complexion. He was gay in conversation, obliging with his friends, and fond of the arts. He had readiness of wit; and it is related of him, that, being reproved for the maxims of his "Prince," he replied—"If I taught princes how to tyrannise, I also taught the people how to destroy them." He probably developes in these words, the secret of his writings. He was willing to teach both parties, but his heart was with the republicans. He was buried at the church of Santa Croce at Florence; and soon after his death a violent sensation was created against his works—principally through an attack on the "Prince," by our own countryman, cardinal Pole. They were interdicted by successive popes, and considered to contain principles subversive of religion and humanity.
It was not till the lapse of more than two centuries that a re-action of feeling took place—and the theory was brought forward, that he wrote for the sake of inducing the Medici to render themselves odious to their countrymen, so as to bring ruin and exile again on their house. In 1782, the Florentines were induced by the representations of an English nobleman, lord Cowper, to pay honour to their countryman, and set on foot a complete edition of his works; which Leopold, grand duke of Tuscany, permitted to be printed; and which was preceded by an eulogium written by Baldelli. In 1787, a monument was erected over his remains, on which was carved the following inscription:—
Tanto Nomini nullum par Elogium
NICOLAUS MACHIAVELLI.
Obiit Anno A. P. V. MDXXVII.
There remains no descendant of Machiavelli. His grandson, by his only daughter. Giuliano Ricci, left several writings relative to his illustrious ancestor, which are preserved in the archives of the Ricci family. The branch of the Machiavelli, descending from the secretary, terminated in Ippolita Machiavelli, married to Francesco de' Ricci in 1608. The other branch terminated in Francesco Maria, Marchese di Quinto in the Vicentino, who died in Florence, 1726.
[111]Baldelli.
[112]Let. Fam. II.
[113]Guicciardini.
[114]Guicciardini.
[115]Guicciardini.
[116]Lettere di Machiavelli, Legazione al Duca Valentino.
[117]It must be mentioned, that a great enmity subsisted between the Florentines and Vitellozzo Vitelli. His brother, Paolo Vitelli, had commanded the troops of the republic at one time before Pisa, and was suspected by them of treachery. They sent for him one night to come to Florence, and he obeyed without hesitation. On his arrival he was seized, cast into prison, tortured, and, though no confession could be extorted from him, he was put to death the same night. It was the intention of the Florentine government to seize on Vitellozzo also, but he escaped and took refuge in Pisa. Borgia had at one time taken up the cause of the Medici, and threatened Florence: he now threw the blame of this action upon the counsels of Vitellozzo.
[118]This letter is lost; and we are thus deprived of a most interesting link in the correspondence, and an insight into Machiavelli's feelings. In it he detailed the half confidence that Borgia at last reposed in him—when, at the moment of execution, there was no longer any necessity for concealing his intentions.
[119]Half an hour before sunset: in December, about half after three o'clock.
[120]"Account of the Mode in which the Valentian Duke destroyed Vitellozzo Vitelli, Paolo Orsino, &c. &c."
[121]Two hours and a half after sunset. The Italian day of twenty-four hours ends at dark, i. e. half an hour after sunset; and then they begin one, two; but as they often say, one o'clock after noon, two o'clock alter noon, so they designate these evening hours as hours of night. This method of counting time is still practised by the common people in Italy, south of the Apennines; and, indeed, by every one of all ranks at Naples and Rome. Our mode of counting time is called by the Italians, French time, as it was first introduced after the conquests of Napoleon. It is often puzzling to hear of fourteen or fifteen o'clock,—it is necessary to remember the season of the year, and the hour of sunset, and how far that is off. On this occasion, the 31st of December, the second hour of night was about half after six o'clock P. M.; the sun setting at about four in December, in Italy.
[122]Guicciardini.
[123]There is something in the entrance of these "two murderers," and their secret conference with the pope, that reminds one of scenes in Shakspeare, which appear improbable in our days of ceremony and exclusion.
[124]Guicciardini.
[125]One of Louis's expressions is curious:—"If the pope will make any demonstration of friendship to me, though no bigger than the black of my nail, I will respond by a yard." The black of the nail of the king of France!
[126]Lettere Familiari, VIII.
[127]Machiavelli's bird-catching need not excite surprise. It is the common pastime of Italian nobles of the present day, to go out with an owl for a decoy, to shoot larks, thrushes, &c.
[128]Critics have given themselves the trouble to imagine and explain a mysterious meaning here, and to suppose that Machiavelli's wood is an allegory of the political labyrinth: but there is no foundation for this idea. Machiavelli never recurred to allegory to express his political opinions; and we have twenty letters of his to Vettori, discussing the intentions and enterprises of the various European princes, without any attempt at mystery or covert allusion. At the same time we have also twenty letters full of anecdotes as insignificant as those of the wood. He was fond of minute details, and lively, though trifling, stories concerning himself and his friends.
[129]When Leo X. formed a duchy, of which he made his nephew Lorenzo duke, Machiavelli, in a private letter to Vettori, discusses the government that he ought to adopt. In this letter he again adduces the example of Cæsar Borgia, saying, that were he a new prince, he would imitate all his proceedings. This of course only alludes to the civil government of Romagna, which was equitable and popular.
[130]He had before recommended these pills to Guicciardini, saying that he himself never took more than two at a time. They are chiefly composed of aloes. There is a letter from his son Pietro to Francesco Nelli, professor at Pisa, which relates concisely the manner of his death:—
"Dearest Francesco,—I cannot refrain from tears on being obliged to inform you of the death of our father Niccolò, which took place on the 22d of this month, of colic, produced by a medicine which he took on the 20th. He allowed himself to be confessed by Frate Matteo, who remained with him till his death. Our father has left us in the greatest poverty, as you know. When you return here, I will tell you many things by word of mouth. I am in haste, and will say no more than farewell.
"Your relation,
"PIETRO MACHIAVELLI."
END OF THE FIRST VOLUME.