LESSON IX.

Name the words that connect sentences, or words or phrases, used in the same way in the following sentences:—

1.	The sun shone out brightly and the mist cleared away.
2.	You may go, but I must remain here.
3.	Cold and damp was the maiden’s grave.
4.	The grass grows in the valley and on the mountain side.

Note.—A phrase is a group of related words without a verb.

A word that connects sentences, or words, or phrases, used in the same way in a sentence, is called a conjunction.

EXERCISE I.

Select the conjunctions in the following sentences, and tell what each connects:—

1.	I went to school, but my brother did not.
2.	My books are in my bag, or I have lost them.
3.	The boys ran away because they were afraid.
4.	Though I fail, I shall attempt to do it.
5.	He was a king, yet he was not happy.
6.	The rich and the poor meet together.
7.	Iron is more useful than gold.
8.	They had full warning, so that they are without excuse.
9.	I am sure that he did it.
10.	The morning came, the chaise was brought,
	But yet was not allowed
	To drive up to the door lest all
	Should say that she was proud.

EXERCISE II.

1. Write a sentence containing a conjunction connecting two sentences.

2. Write a sentence containing a conjunction connecting two phrases.

3. Write a sentence containing a conjunction connecting two adverbs.

4. Write a sentence containing a conjunction connecting two nouns.

LESSON X.

INTERJECTIONS.

Name the words in the following sentences that express sudden or strong feeling:—

1.	Hurrah! the work is done.
2.	Alas! we were too late.
3.	Hush! she is sleeping now.
4.	Bravo! he has reached the boat.

A word used to express some sudden or strong feeling is called an interjection.

An interjection is not related to any word in the sentence.

Interjections express a variety of feelings, such as joy, sorrow, surprise, pain, contempt and strong desire.

EXERCISE I.

Select the interjections in the following sentences, and state the feeling expressed by each:—

1.	Oh! my tooth is aching again.
2.	Alas! he heeded not my warning.
3.	Hark! what means that distant cry?
4.	Pshaw! it is nothing but the wind.
5.	Hurrah! for England’s Queen.
6.	Ho! breakers on the weather bow.
7.	But O! eternity’s too short
	To utter all Thy praise.
8.	Hold! if ’twas wrong, the wrong is mine.

EXERCISE II.

Write six sentences, each containing an interjection.

Underline the interjections.

LESSON XI.

We have now learned all the different classes of words in our language and the name of each class.

Since each class performs a certain office or part in the sentence, the different classes are called parts of speech.

EXERCISE.

State the office of each word in the following sentences, and tell what part of speech it is:—

1.	A rolling stone gathers no moss.
2.	I live for those who love me.
3.	The man walked across the bridge.
4.	The cherries on this tree are ripe.
5.	I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers.
6.	This boy lost his kite in a tree.
7.	The village master taught his little school.
8.	Slowly and sadly we laid him down.
9.	Crash! a terrific cry broke from three hundred hearts.
10.	I never was on the dull, tame shore,
	But I loved the great sea more and more.

LESSON XII.

The part of speech or grammatical value of words is always determined by their use or function in the sentence.

EXERCISE I.

State the use or function of the italicized words in the following sentences, and tell the part of speech of each word:—

1.	We have a quire of paper.
2.	Our friends paper their walls every year.
3.	He put his hat in a paper box.
4.	It is a fine day.
5.	Magistrates fine those who break the laws.
6.	The penalty is a fine of twenty dollars.
7.	I know that story.
8.	He has the book that I require.
9.	We know that he is just.
10.	The word that is sometimes used to connect sentences.
11.	Give him the iron pail.
12.	The girls iron the clothes in the morning.
13.	He has a piece of iron.

EXERCISE II.

Show that the following words may have different grammatical values:—

	in,	water,	ring,	pin,	cover.
	round,	this,	lock,	cork,	silver.

Model:—	Come in. An adverb.
	My hat is in the room. A preposition.
	The word in was omitted. A noun.

Note.—The foregoing example is printed in italics. Pupils will underline their examples.

PART SECOND.

CLASSES AND INFLECTIONS OF THE PARTS

OF SPEECH.

LESSON XIII.

CLASSES OF NOUNS.

Select in the following sentences the nouns that are names of particular persons or things, and the nouns that are names of all the members of a class of persons or things:—

1.	These little girls live with their parents in Toronto.
2.	Mary and Harold are going to visit their friends.
3.	On a little mound, Napoleon
	Stood on our storming day.—Browning.

A name of a particular or individual person or thing is called a proper noun; as, Mary, Saturday, Lake Ontario.

Proper nouns begin with capital letters.

A name that applies to all the members of a class of persons or things is called a common noun; as, girl, desk, river.

EXERCISE.

1. Write five sentences, each containing a proper noun, and underline the example in each sentence.

2. Write five sentences, each containing a common noun, and underline the example in each sentence.

II. CONCRETE AND ABSTRACT.

Select in the following sentences the nouns that are names of objects which have a real and separate existence outside of the mind, and those which are names of things that have no real existence and are only thought of in the mind:—

1.	Contentment is better than gold.
2.	Virtue is its own reward.
3.	Truth crushed to earth, shall rise again,—
	The eternal years of God are hers.—Bryant.

A noun that is the name of an object which has a real and separate existence outside of the mind, is called a concrete noun; as, gold, water.

A noun that is the name of something which has not a real and separate existence outside of the mind, is called an abstract noun; as, truth, justice.

EXERCISE.

1. Write five sentences each containing a concrete noun, and underline the example in each sentence.

2. Write five sentences each containing an abstract noun, and underline the example in each sentence.

Note.—All nouns may be classified into (1) proper and common, (2) concrete and abstract, hence the two preceding classifications are perfect. The classifications which follow are imperfect, since they do not include all nouns.

III. COLLECTIVE NOUNS.

Name the nouns in the following sentences that denote a collection of objects:—

1.	His family live in England.
2.	The army advanced during the night.
3.	The verdict is given by a jury.
4.	A committee of six was appointed by the members.

A noun of the singular form that stands for a collection or number of things is called a collective noun; as, He owns a herd of cattle.

EXERCISE.

Write five sentences each containing a collective noun, and underline the example in each sentence.

IV. VERBAL NOUNS.

Select the nouns ending in ing that are derived from verbs and have lost all verbal function in the following sentences:—

1.	That is good ploughing.
2.	His writing is very legible.
3.	The singing was admired by all.

A noun ending in ing that is derived from a verb and has lost all verbal function, is called a verbal noun; as, There is good sleighing now.

EXERCISE.

Write five sentences each containing a verbal noun, and underline the example in each sentence.

LESSON XIV.

V. GENDER-NOUNS.

Which of the following words denote males, and which denote females?

	boy,	man,	uncle,	hero,	emperor,
	girl,	woman,	aunt,	heroine,	empress.

Sex is one of the two divisions of animals, male and female.

The distinction of sex is called gender.

A noun that denotes a male is of the masculine gender; as, father.

A noun that denotes a female is of the feminine gender; as, mother.

Some nouns are either masculine or feminine gender; as, friend, neighbor.

Nouns that denote things neither male nor female, have no gender; as, book, tree.

Gender is distinguished by different words; as,—

Masculine.	Feminine.
gentleman,	lady,
husband,	wife,
king,	queen,
monk,	nun,
nephew,	niece,
sir,	madam,
son,	daughter,
uncle,	aunt,
bachelor,	maid or spinster,
drake,	duck,
hart,	roe,
ram,	ewe,
stag,	hind,
buck,	doe,
earl,	countess,
wizard,	witch.

Gender is distinguished by different endings; as,—

Masculine.	Feminine.
heir,	heiress,
baron,	baroness,
count,	countess,
prince,	princess,
negro,	negress,
actor,	actress,
Jew,	Jewess,
lion,	lioness,
governor,	governess,
abbot,	abbess,
victor,	victress,
marquis,	marchioness,
peer,	peeress,
host,	hostess,
duke,	duchess,
master,	mistress,
deacon,	deaconess,
poet,	poetess,
executor,	executrix,
hero,	heroine,
czar,	czarina,
sultan,	sultana,
infante,	infanta,
widower,	widow,
bridegroom,	bride,
fox,	vixen.

Gender is sometimes distinguished by prefixing words; as,—

Masculine.	Feminine.
man-servant,	maid-servant,
cock-sparrow,	hen-sparrow,
he-goat,	she-goat.

EXERCISE.

Select the gender-nouns in the following sentences, and give the gender of each:—

1.	Mary and her friend went for a sail on the lake.
2.	The hero of this story is a young boy.
3.	Great authors are seldom seen by the people.
4.	Tell my mother that her other sons shall comfort her old age.
5.	He fled with his wife and child.
6.	My sister went home with her aunt.
7.	Both a prince and a poet were there.
8.	Little Effie shall go with me to-morrow to the green,
	And you’ll be there, too, mother, to see me made the Queen:
	For the shepherd lads on every side ’ill come from far away,
	And I’m to be Queen of the May, mother, I’m to be Queen of the May.—Tennyson.

LESSON XV.

NUMBER.

Which form of the following words denotes one thing, and which more than one thing?—

	pen,	slate,	church,	city,	tooth,
	pens,	slates,	churches,	cities,	teeth.

The form of a word which names one thing is called singular, and the noun is said to be in the singular number. The form of a word which names more than one thing is called plural, and the noun is said to be in the plural number.

1. The plural is generally formed by adding s to the singular form; as pin, pins; book, books.

2. Some nouns form the plural by adding es to the singular form; as, match, matches; tax, taxes.

Note the following words:—fox, bush, glass, loss, hero, negro, cargo, echo, potato, tomato.

3. Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel, form the plural by adding s to the singular form; as, day, days; valley, valleys.

Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, form the plural by changing the y into i and adding es; as, lily, lilies; copy, copies.

4. Some nouns ending in f or fe form the plural by changing f or fe to v and adding es; as, knife, knives.

Note the following:—wife, life, wolf, loaf, half, leaf, thief, shelf, calf, self.

5. A few nouns form the plural by adding en to the singular form; as, ox, oxen; child, children; brother, brethren.

6. Some nouns form the plural by changing the vowel of the singular; as, man, men; goose, geese.

7. Most nouns taken from foreign languages retain their foreign plurals:

	Singular.	Plural.
	radius,	radii.
	beau,	beaux.
	analysis,	analyses.
	index,	indices.
	axis,	axes.
	basis,	bases.
	seraph,	seraphim.
	memorandum,	memoranda.
	phenomenon,	phenomena.
	crisis,	crises.
	erratum,	errata.
	stratum,	strata.
	oasis,	oases.
	cherub,	cherubim.

8. Some compound nouns make the principal word plural, and some make both words plural; as, son-in-law, sons-in-law; man-servant, men-servants.

EXERCISE.

Write the plural of the following nouns:—

1.	desk, woman, calf, foot, mouse, class.
2.	cargo, piano, sky, toy, crisis, potato.
3.	story, church, enemy, spoonful, chimney.
4.	lily, valley, mother-in-law, wolf, pencil.
5.	memorandum, sheaf, child, man-of-war.

LESSON XVI.

Note the following peculiarities:

1. Nouns used only in the plural:—

aborigines,	antipodes,	annals,	banns,	bellows,	breeches,
matins,	measles,	news,	nuptials,	oats,	pincers,
scissors,	shears,	tidings,	trousers,	vespers,	victuals.

2. Nouns that have the same form in both numbers:—

	deer,	trout,	sheep,	heathen,	perch,
	grouse,	salmon,	swine,	cannon,	pike.

3. Nouns with two plurals, differing in meaning:—

Singular.	Plural.	Plural.
penny,	pennies (a number.)	pence (a sum.)
pea,	peas (a number.)	pease (a quantity.)
brother,	brothers (same family.)	brethren (same society.)
die,	dies (for stamping.)	dice (for gaming.)
cloth,	cloths (kinds of cloth.)	clothes (garments.)
index,	indexes (to a book.)	indices (in algebra.)
genius,	geniuses (men of talent.)	genii (spirits.)

4. Nouns with a different meaning in the plural:—

	compass,	compasses,
	iron,	irons,
	good,	goods,
	salt,	salts,
	corn,	corns.

5. Nouns with two meanings in the plural:—

Singular.	Plural.	Plural.
custom,	customs (habits.)	customs (revenue duties.)
letter,	letters (alphabet.)	letters (literature.)
number,	numbers (in counting.)	numbers (poetry.)
part,	parts (divisions.)	parts (abilities.)

English Grammar and Composition for Public Schools

About This Book

LESSON IX.

LESSON X.

LESSON XI.

LESSON XII.

LESSON XIII.

LESSON XIV.

LESSON XV.

LESSON XVI.