English Grammar in Familiar Lectures / Accompanied by a compendium, embracing a new systematic order of parsing, a new system of punctuation, exercises in false syntax, and a system of philosophical grammar, in notes, to which are added an appendix and a key to the exercises : designed for the use of schools and private learners

All poetical feet consist either of two, or of three syllables; and are reducible to eight kinds; four of two syllables, and four of three, as follows:

The former is generally confined to the correct application of words in constructing single sentences. The latter treats of the proper choice of words, of the happiest method of constructing sentences, of their most advantageous arrangement in forming a discourse, and of the various kinds and qualities of composition. The principles of rhetoric are principally based on those unfolded and illustrated in the science of grammar. Hence, an acquaintance with the latter, and, indeed, with the liberal arts, is a prerequisite to the study of rhetoric and belles-lettres.

Rhetoric, or the art of persuasion, requires in a writer, the union of good sense, and a lively and chaste imagination. It is, then, her province to teach him to embellish his thoughts with elegant and appropriate language, vivid imagery, and an agreeable variety of expression. It ought to be his aim,

Elegance of style requires us generally to avoid, many short or long sentences in succession; a monotonous correspondence of one member to another; and the commencing of a piece, section, or paragraph, with a long sentence.

1. In the course of the sentence, the scene should be changed as little as possible. In every sentence there is some leading or governing word, which, if possible, ought to be continued so from the beginning to the end of it. The following sentence is not constructed according to this rule: "After we came to anchor, they put me on shore, where I was saluted by all my friends, who received me with the greatest kindness." In this sentence, though the objects are sufficiently connected, yet, by shifting so frequently the place and the person, the vessel, the shore, we, they, I and who, they appear in so disunited a view, that the mind is led to wander for the sense. The sentence is restored to its proper unity by constructing it thus: "Having come to anchor, I was put on shore, where I was saluted by all my friends, who received me with the greatest kindness."

2. Never crowd into one sentence things which have so little connexion, that they would bear to be divided into two or more sentences. The violation of this rule produces so unfavorable an effect, that it is safer to err rather by too many short sentences, than by one that is overloaded and confused.

3. Avoid all unnecessary parentheses.

1. In the position of adverbs. "By greatness," says Mr. Addison, "I do not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the largeness of a whole view." The improper situation of the adverb only, in this sentence, renders it a limitation of the verb mean, whereas the author intended to have it qualify the phrase, a single object; thus, "By greatness, I do not mean the bulk of any single object only, but the largeness of a whole view."

2. In the position of phrases and members. "Are these designs which any man who is born a Briton, in any circumstances, in any situation, ought to be ashamed or afraid to avow?" Corrected: "Are these designs which any man who is born a Briton, ought to be ashamed or afraid, in any circumstances, in any situation, to avow?"

3. In the position of pronouns. The reference of a pronoun to its noun, should always be so clear that we cannot possibly mistake it: otherwise the noun ought to be repeated. "It is folly to pretend to arm ourselves against the accidents of life, by heaping up treasures, which nothing can protect us against but the good providence of our Heavenly Father." Which, in this sentence, grammatically refers to treasures; and this would convert the whole period into nonsense. The sentence should have been thus constructed, "It is folly to pretend, by heaping up treasures, to arm ourselves against the accidents of life, against which nothing can protect us but the good providence of our Heavenly Father."

1. The first rule for promoting the strength of a sentence, is, to take from it all redundant words and members. Whatever can be easily supplied in the mind, should generally be omitted; thus, "Content with deserving a triumph, he refused the honor of it," is better than to say, "Being content with deserving a triumph." &c. "They returned back again to the same city from whence they came forth." If we expunge from this snort sentence five which are were expletives, it will be much more neat and forcible thus, "They returned to the city whence they came." But we should be cautious of pruning so closely as to give a hardness and dryness to the style. Some leaves must be left to shelter and adorn the fruit.

2. Particular attention to the use of copulatives, relatives, and all the particles employed for transition and connexion, is required. In compositions of an elevated character, the relative should generally be inserted. An injudicious repetition of and enfeebles style; but when enumerating objects which we wish to have appear as distinct from each other as possible, it may be repeated with peculiar advantage; thus, "Such a man may fall a victim to power; but truth, and reason, and liberty, would fall with him."

3. Dispose of the capital word or words in that part of the sentence in which they will make the most striking impression.

4. Cause the members of a sentence to go on rising in their importance one above another. In a sentence of two members, the longer should generally be the concluding one.

5. Avoid concluding a sentence with an adverb, a preposition, or any inconsiderable word, unless it be emphatical.

6. Where two things are compared or contrasted with each other, a resemblance in the language and construction should be observed.

When we say of a person, that he has a fine taste in wines, the word taste is used in its common, literal sense; but when we say, he has a fine taste for painting, poetry, or music, we use the word figuratively. "A good man enjoys comfort in the midst of adversity," is simple language; but when it is said, "To the upright there ariseth light in darkness," the same sentiment is expressed in a figurative style, light is put in the place of comfort, and darkness is used to suggest the idea of adversity.

When I say of some great minister, "That he upholds the state like a pillar which supports the weight of a whole edifice," I fairly make a comparison; but when I say of such a minister, "That he is the pillar of the state," the word pillar becomes a metaphor. In the latter construction, the comparison between the minister and a pillar, is made in the mind; but it is expressed without any of the words that denote comparison.

Metaphors abound in all writings. In the scriptures they may be found in vast variety. Thus, our blessed Lord is called a vine, a lamb, a lion, &c.; and men, according to their different dispositions, are styled wolves, sheep, dogs, serpents, vipers, &c.

Washington Irving, in speaking of the degraded state of the American Aborigines who linger on the borders of the "white settlements," employs the following beautiful metaphor: "The proud pillar of their independence has been shaken down, and the whole moral fabric lies in ruins."

The following is a fine example of an allegory, taken from the 60th psalm; wherein the people of Israel are represented under the image of a vine. "Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt: thou hast cast out the heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it; and didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars. She sent out her boughs into the sea, and her branches into the river."

Thus, we use a simile, when we say, "The actions of princes are like those great rivers, the course of which every one beholds, but their springs have been seen by few." "As the mountains are round about Jerusalem, so the Lord is round about his people." "The music of Caryl was like the memory of joys that are past, pleasant and mournful to the soul." "Our Indians are like those wild plants which thrive best in the shade, but which wither when exposed to the influence of the sun."

When we say, "They read Milton," the cause is put for the effect, meaning "Milton's works." "Gray hairs should be respected;" here the effect is put for the cause; meaning by "gray hairs," old age, which produces gray hairs. In the phrase, "The kettle boils," the container is substituted for the thing contained. "He addressed the chair;" that is, the person in the chair.

Thus, "A fleet of twenty sail, instead of, ships." "The horse is a noble animal;" "The dog is a faithful creature:" here an individual is put for the species. We sometimes use the "head" for the person, and the "waves" for the sea. In like manner, an attribute may be pat for a subject; as "Youth" for the young, the "deep" for the sea.

The following are fine examples of this figure:

"Weep on the rock of roaring winds, O maid of Inistore; bend thy fair head over the waves, thou fairer than the ghost of the hills, when it moves in a sun-beam at noon over the silence of Morveu."

Example. "If you wish to enrich a person, study not to increase his stores, but to diminish his desires."

"I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice; his spear, the blasted fir; his shield, the rising moon; he sat on the shore, like a cloud of mist on the bills."

Thus Balaam expressed himself to Balak: "The Lord is not man, that he should lie, nor the son of man, that he should repeat. Hath he said it? and shall he not do it? Hath he spoken it? and shall he not make it good?" "Hast thou an arm like God? or canst thou thunder with a voice like him?"

"O that I had in the wilderness a lodging place of way-faring men!" "O that I had wings like a dove! for then would I fly away, and be at rest!"

The prophet Elijah adopted this figure, when he challenged the priests of Baal to prove the truth of their deity. "He mocked them, and said. Cry aloud for he is a god: either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is on a journey, or, peradventure, he sleepeth, and must be waked."

Cicero gives a lively instance of this figure, when he says, "It is a crime to put a Roman citizen in bonds: it is the height of guilt to scourge him; little less than parricide to put him to death: what name, then, shall I give to the act of crucifying him?"

RULE 4. Frequent commission of sin hardens men in it. Great pains have been taken, &c.—is seldom found. The sincere are, &c.—is happy. What avail, &c.—Disappointments sink—the renewal of hope gives, &c.—is without limit, has been conferred upon us.—Thou canst not heal—but thou mayst do, &c.—consists the happiness, &c.—Who touchedst, or didst touch Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire.

Note 1. And wilt thou never be to Heaven resigned?—And who had great abilities, &c.

Note 2. Are peace and honor.—was controversy.

RULE 7. Them that you visited.—him that was mentioned.—he who preached repentance, &c.—they who died.—he who succeeded.

RULE 8. Time and tide wait, &c.—remove mountains.—are both uncertain.—dwell with, &c.—affect the mind, &c.—What signify the counsel and care, &c.—are now perished.—Why are whiteness and coldness, &c.—bind them continually, &c.—render their possessor, &c.—There are error and discrepance—which show, &c.

RULE 9. Is the same in idea.—is in the porphyry.—is remarkable, &c.—which moves merely as it is moved.—affects us, &c.—Man's happiness or misery is, in a great measure, &c.—for it may be, &c.—was blameworthy.

RULE 10. The nation is powerful.—The fleet was seen, &c.—The church has, &c.—is, or ought to be, the object, &c.—it is feeble.

RULE 11. My people do, &c.—The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure as their, &c.—were divided in their sentiments, and they have referred, &c.—The people rejoice—give them sorrow.

RULE 12. Homer's works are, &c.—Asa's heart. James Hart's book.

Note 1. It was the men, women, and children's lot, &c. or, It was the lot of the men, women, and children.—Peter, John, and Andrew's, &c.

Note 2. This is Campbell the poet's production; or, The production of Campbell, &c.—The silk was purchased at Brown's the mercer and haberdasher.

Note 4. The pupil's composing, &c.—rule's being observed.—of the president's neglecting to lay it before the council.

RULE 13. Of his audience.—put it on Jacob.—sprinkle them—and they shall, &c.—of his reputation.

Note. You were blamed; you were worthy.—where were you?—how fat were you?

RULE 14. Who hast been, &c.—who is the sixth that has lost his life by this means.

Who all my sense confinedst; or, didst confine.

Note. And who broughtest him forth out of Ur.

RULE 15, Who shall be sent, &c.—This is the man who, &c.

RULE 16. They to whom much is given, &c.—with whom you associate &c.—whom I greatly respect, &c.—whom we ought to love, and to whom, &c—They whom conscience, &c.—With whom did you walk?—Whom did you see?—To whom did you give the book?

RULE 17. Who gave John those books? We.—him who lives in Pearl street—My brother and he.—She and I.

RULE 18: Note 2. Thirty tuns.—twenty feet—one hundred fathoms.

Note 6. He bought a pair of new shoes—piece of elegant furniture.—pair of fine horses—tract of poor land.

Note 7. Are still more difficult to be comprehended.—most doubtful, or precarious way, &c.—This model comes nearer perfection than any I, &c.

RULE 19: Note. That sort.—these two hours.—This kind, &c.—He saw one person, or more than one, enter the garden.

Note 2. Better than himself.—is so small.—his station may be, is bound by the laws.

Note 3. On each side, &c.—took each his censer.

RULE 20. Whom did they, &c.—They whom opulence,—whom luxury, &c.—Him and them we know, &c.—Her that is negligent, &c.—my brother and me &c.—Whom did they send, &c.—Them whom he, &c.

RULE 21. It is I.—If I were he.—it is he, indeed.—Whom do you, &c.—Who do men say, &c.—and who say ye, &c.—whom do you imagine it to have been?—it was I; but you knew that it was he.

RULE 25. Bid him come—durst not do it.—Hear him read, &c.—makes us approve and reject, &c.—better to live—than to outlive, &c.—to wrestle.

RULE 26: Note. The taking of pains: or, without taking pains, &c.—The changing of times,—the removing and setting up of kings.

RULE 28: Note 3. He did me—I had written—he came home.—befallen my cousin—he would have gone.—already risen.—is begun.—is spoken.—would have written—had they written, &c.

RULE 29: Note 1. It cannot, therefore, be, &c.—he was not often pleasing.—should never be separated.—We may live happily, &c.

RULE 30: Note. I don't know any thing; or, I know nothing, &c.—I did not see anybody; or, I saw nobody, &c.—Nothing ever affects her.—and take no shape or semblance, &c.—There can be nothing, &c.—Neither precept nor discipline is so forcible as example.

RULE 31. For himself.—among themselves.—with whom he is, &c.—With whom did, &c.—From whom did you receive instruction?

RULE 33. My brother and he, &c.—You and I, &c. He and I—John and he, &c.—Between you and me, &c.

RULE 34. And entreat me, &c.—and acting differently, &c.

Note 1. But he may return—but he will write no more.

Note 2. Unless it rain.—If he acquire riches, &c.

RULE 35. Than I—as well as he, than they.—but he.—but he and I.—but them who had gone astray.

Promiscuous Examples.—Him who is from eternity, &c.—depends all the happiness,—which exists, &c.—the enemies whom, &c.—Is it I or he whom you requested?—Though great have been,—sincerely acknowledge.—There was, in the metropolis.—exercising our memories.—was consumed.—Affluence may give—but it will not.—of this world often choke.—Them that honor,—and they that despise.—I intended to call last week.—the fields look fresh and gay.—very neatly, finely woven paper.—where I saw Gen. Andrew Jackson, him who.—Take the first two,—last three.—thirty feet high.—a union,—a hypothesis.—I have seen him to whom you wrote, he would have come back, or returned.—understands the nature,—he rejects.—If thou study,—thou wilt become.—is not properly attended to.—He knew.—therefore, to have done it,—than the title.—very independently.—duty to do.—my friend's entering.—is the best specimen, or it comes nearer perfection than any, &c.—blow them, will go, &c.—Each of those two authors has his merit.—Reason's whole,—lie in.—strikes the mind,—than if the parts had been adjusted,—with perfect symmetry.

Satire does not carry in it.—composes the triangle.—persons' opportunities were ever.—It has been reported.—should never be.—situation in which.—is thoroughly versed in his.—are the soul,—follows little.—An army presents.—are the duties of a christian.—happier than he.—always have inclined, and which always will incline him to offend.—which require great.—Them that honor me, will I.—has opinions peculiar to itself.—that it may be said he attained monarchical.—hast permitted,—wilt deliver.—was formerly propagated.—the measure is,—unworthy your.—were faithless.—After I had visited.—nor shall I, consent.—Yesterday I intended to walk out, but was.—make or are thirteen,—leave three.—If he go,—make the eighth time that he will have visited.—is nobler.—was possessed, or that ever can be.—one great edifice,—smaller ones.—honesty is.—it to be.—will follow me,—I shall dwell.—is gone astray.—he could, not have done.—feeling a propensity.

RULE 1. Idleness is the great fomenter of all corruptions in the human heart. The friend of order has made half his way to virtue. All finery is a sign of littleness.

RULE 2. The indulgence of a harsh disposition, is the introduction to future misery. To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real defect in character. The intermixture of evil in human society, serves to exercise the suffering graces and virtues of the good.

RULE 3. Charity, like the sun, brightens all its objects. Gentleness is, in truth, the great avenue to mutual enjoyment. You, too, have your failings. Humility and knowledge, with poor apparel, excel pride and ignorance, under costly attire. The best men often experience disappointments. Advice should be seasonably administered. No assumed behavior can always hide the real character.

RULE 4. Lord, thou hast been our dwelling place in all generations. Continue, my dear child, to make virtue thy chief study. Canst thou expect, thou betrayer of innocence, to escape the hand of vengeance? Death, the king of terrors, chose a prime minister. Hope, the balm of life, sooths us under every misfortune. Confucius, the great Chinese philosopher, was eminently good, as well as wise. The patriarch Joseph is an illustrious example of true piety.

RULE 5. Peace of mind being secured, we may smile at misfortune. To enjoy present pleasure, he sacrificed his future ease and reputation. His talents, formed for great enterprises, could not fail of rendering him conspicuous. The path of piety and virtue, pursued with a firm and constant spirit, will assuredly lead to happiness. All mankind compose one family, assembled under the eye of one common Father.

RULE 6. We have no reason to complain of the lot of man, nor of the mutability of the world. Sensuality contaminates the body, depresses the understanding, deadens the moral feelings of the heart, and degrades man from his rank in creation.

Self-conceit, presumption, and obstinacy, blast the prospect of many a youth. He is alternately supported by his father, his uncle, and his elder brother. The man of virtue and honor, will be trusted, relied upon, and esteemed. Conscious guilt renders one mean-spirited, timorous, and base. An upright mind will never be at a loss to discern what is just and true, lovely, honest, and of good report. Habits of reading, writing, and thinking, are the indispensable qualifications of a good student. The great business of life is, to be employed in doing justly, loving mercy, and walking humbly with our God. To live soberly, righteously, and piously, comprehends the whole of our duty.

In our health, life, possessions, connexions, pleasures, there are causes of decay imperceptibly working. Deliberate slowly, execute promptly. An idle, trifling society, is near akin to such as is corrupting. This unhappy person had been seriously, affectionately admonished, but in vain.

RULE 7. How much better it is to get wisdom than gold. The friendships of the world can exist no longer than interest cements them. Eat what is set before you. They who excite envy, will easily incur censure. A man who is of a detracting spirit, will misconstrue the most innocent words that can be put together. Many of the evils which occasion our complaints of the world, are wholly imaginary.

The gentle mind is like the smooth stream, which reflects every object in its just proportion, and in its fairest colors. In that unaffected civility which springs from a gentle mind, there is an incomparable charm. The Lord, whom I serve, is eternal. This, is the man we saw yesterday.

RULE 8. Idleness brings forward and nourishes many bad passions. True friendship will, at all times, avoid a rough or careless behavior. Health and peace, a moderate fortune, and a few friends, sum up all the undoubted articles of temporal felicity. Truth is fair and artless, simple and sincere, uniform and consistent. Intemperance destroys the strength of our bodies and the vigor of our minds.

RULE 9. As a companion, he was severe and satirical; as a friend, captious and dangerous. If the spring put forth no blossoms, in summer there will be no beauty, and in autumn, no fruit. So, if youth be trifled away without improvement, manhood will be contemptible, and old age, miserable.

RULE 10. They believed he was dead. He did not know that I was the man. I knew she was still alive. The greatest misery is, to be condemned by our own hearts. The greatest misery that we can endure, is, to be condemned by our own hearts.

RULE 1. The path of truth is a plain and safe path; that of falsehood is a perplexing maze. Heaven is the region of gentleness and friendship; hell, of fierceness and animosity. As there is a worldly happiness, which God perceives to be no other than disguised misery; as there are worldly honors, which, in his estimation, are a reproach; so, there is a worldly wisdom, which, in his sight, is foolishness.

RULE 1. The three great enemies to tranquillity, are vice, superstition, and idleness: vice, which poisons and disturbs the mind with bad passions; superstition, which fills it with imaginary terrors; idleness, which loads it with tediousness and disgust.