211 Book of Esther, iv. 14: "and who knoweth whether thou art not come to the kingdom for such a time as this?"
214 vain—"idle," "useless." Cf. "in vain."
216 ses saints = "his holy ones."
218 d'un enfant, and not d'une enfant, because the statement is general. The next line appeals to Esther directly, hence the fem. heureuse.
221 peuvent = "can avail."
226 Cf. Isaiah, xl. 17. "All the nations are as nothing before him; they are counted to him less than nothing."
227 trépas (from trans and low Latin passare) is the passing across the boundary of life. Cf. our two uses of "trespass."
230 que is here a survival from the very frequent construction which begins with c'est: c'est, sans doute, que. . .-Éprouver has either an active sense, "to put to the test," or a passive, "to experience."
232 The addition of bien to vouloir weakens the meaning from strong volition to condescension. Here: "has deigned." Cf. l. 357. Similarly aimer = "to love," but aimer bien = "to like."
234 en. See App. V, ii. C.
237 cette grâce, i.e., of being the instrument of our delivery. The statement is of course hypothetical, and the future is used, instead of the conditional, only for greater directness and force.
238 toute votre race, obviously "thou and thy father's house," Book of Esther, iv. 14.
240 assidus à prier is the order.
242 jeûne, from jejunum. Cf. our "jejune."
245 "And if I perish, I perish," Book of Esther, iv. 16. Contente, now colloquially = our "glad," has here its truest sense of "satisfied."
247 Qu'on s'éloigne. The touch of dignity added to the command by the use of the indefinite pronoun, can hardly be translated. For the following prayer, see Introd. section IV.
259 sert has here its full etymological meaning of "being a slave." Its other meanings are: 2. with de, "to serve as," "to be used for," l. 843; 3. with accus. "to serve" a person, a cause, etc., l. 336; 4. with dative, "to be of use" to a person or for a purpose, l. 333.
200 veut, as often, = "seek to." Note that the de before être is not dependent on peu, but is the regular preposition introducing an infinitive not at the beginning of a sentence.—For vouloir, used as a pseudo-auxiliary, see l. 155, N.
261 Insulter, like applaudir, is used with the accus. in a literal, with the dat. in a figurative, sense.
262 Imputer always implies that you charge a person with an offence. Here there is a slight hypallage: the offence lies in the fact that the conqueror dares to credit his false gods with his triumph, and not, as the words would literally signify, in that with which he credits them.
263 Note that adjectives at the end of the line are strongly emphatic.
266 Foi means: 1. "faith," l. 256; 2. "loyalty," l. 375; 3. "truth," as here; 4. "promise," l. 1152. If the Jews were annihilated, the Saviour promised by God to the seed of Abraham could not be born to them.
277 où, frequently used for the dat. of relative pron. referring to things.
299 Il fut is elegant for il y eut. Cf. l. 477. For the tense, see App. II, ii. B. b.
309 Arracher is "to snatch away," "to pull off" or "up;" déchirer is "to tear into pieces."
332 Note that autrui can never be nominative.
333 Que. See App. IV, 1. A.
347 Ni is almost always followed by ne without pas, because ne is only attended by its intensifying particle pas when used as the sole negative in the clause, without any accompanying rien, jamais, aucun, etc. Here, therefore, there should be no pas. Its introduction creates a sort of anacoluthon, and throws great stress on the negative.
364 When Pharaoh's host was swallowed up by the Red Sea.
367 paille légère = "chaff."
373 ne . . . que. Cf. l. 13, N.
375 en. See App. V, ii. E.
382 Tout ce . . . de mystères is a construction framed on the analogy of genitives following adverbs of quantity.
386 fait and not faite. See App. III.
392 fuit is the present tense because qui le fuit is equivalent to an adjective.
404 The story is that, at the death of Gomates, the candidates to the throne of Persia, unable to settle their rival claims, agreed that he should be king whose horse should neigh first after sunrise, and that Darius won the crown through the wit of his servant who led a mare to the appointed spot in advance. See Herodotus, III. 85-86.
405 idée, by frequent metonymy for esprit.
406 Chaldaea was famous for its astronomers, who had fixed the duration of the year, were acquainted with the zodiac, and as early as the middle of the fourth century B.C., already possessed astronomical records extending over 1,900 years. They were also far-famed astrologers, and as such were in great demand as late as the last years of the Roman empire.
415 eut du ciel. Cf. Gray's Elegy: "He gained from heaven, 'twas all he asked," etc.
419 Striking witness is borne to Haman's high position by the flattery paid him by Hydaspes.
426 Tout révère, for tous révèrent, for metrical reasons. See App. I, Metre.
430 Traiter de = "to call," always with an unfavorable connotation.
444 fragile, of course, must be translated here "broken."
445 salutaire, here "timely."
449 l'artifice. The definite article is used distributively: = "all artifice."
452 Racine heightens the contrast between Haman's past and present fortunes by imagining him to have been bought for a slave, in boyhood, by a Persian master. This the Bible does not state, although the Rest of the Book of Esther calls him a Macedonian (xvi, 10), but immediately adds "and as a stranger received of us."
454 soutiens de ma puissance. Male children were, and still are, indispensable to prosperity in the East, as the supporters and defenders of the family.
458 atteinte is now usually unfavorable.
459 Mardochée assis, etc. See l. 139, N, for this Latin construction.
462 tandis que. See l. 69, N. Tant que would have been more precise here.
465 est . . . à. The construction is ad sensum, as though sembler had been used.
468 Note the use of aller as a pseudo-auxiliary. Cf. l. 155, N.
469 C'est trop peu d'une telle . . . The de in such forms is due to false analogy with the construction in which an infinitive in apposition follows c'est, for which see l. 260, N.
477 Il fut. See App. II, ii. B. b.
478 This line, expressive of the multitude of the Jews, heightens the contrast with l. 480.
484 a dû. See l. 166, N.
485-87 I Sam. xv, 7-8: "And Saul smote the Amalekites . . . and he took Agag, the King of the Amalekites alive, and utterly destroyed all the people with the edge of the sword."
486 vils, a classical adjective = "valueless," "contemptible." Cf. Merch. of Ven. ii., 4: "'tis vile, unless it may be quaintly ordered." The flocks and herds have no value, are contemptible, as adversaries; hence, = "helpless." Cf. l. 522.
493 couleurs, now familiarly used for "false representations." J'armai, cf. l. 171.
494 J'interessai . . . etc. "I showed him his glory at stake." Note the tense of trembla: = "till he trembled." See App. II, ii. B. a.
502 Cf. Gen. xvi., 12; "his hand shall be against every man, and every man's hand against him."
504 Note Haman's concluding appeal to the greed of human nature. He is a crafty counsellor, as unscrupulous as he is clever.
511 For enfin, see l. 160; for the Latin construction of le trépas différé, see l. 139.
519-520 There is here a slight confusion in construction. If a comma preceded terrible, souvent would then be regularly dependent on combien. But there is no authority for this punctuation, and we must supply a repeated combien, thus: _tu sais combien terrible . . . [il est it combien] souvent, etc.
521 à cannot be consequent to trop, which always takes pour. Tr. "in tormenting me."
523 Que. See App. IV, ii. A.
527 The imperfect for the conditional past, for greater vividness. Cf. "One moment more and he was a dead man" = he would have been . . .
529 veux bien. See l. 232, N. It is condescension on the king's part to make a confession at all.
530. Note that the king views himself as the father of his people: a piece of flattery on Racine's part towards Louis XIV.
533 succès, conformably with its derivation, is here without the usual favorable connotation. Cf. "luck" = "good luck."—Fureur expresses aggressive madness (cf. ira furor brevis est), which the king assumes could alone prompt such an attempt.
538 More indirect flattery for Louis XIV.
539 Foi. See l. 266, N.
541 trop = "passing." For superlative use of si, cf. 1021.
545 frappe = "impresses."
546 nous = "us" [kings]. See App. I, Hiatus.
547 de = "out of," "among."
548 faire valoir, lit. = "to make to have its full value;" hence, "to set off." Tr. "to show off." Nous is indirect obj.—Intéressés, is the opposite of "disinterested."
549 Note that the French says: "there are none who do," instead of "there is none who does," a plural due to the plural denotation of en.
551 Et might well have preceded this second clause, which is parallel to that in l. 550.
553 ["While they are only] too ready . . ."
553-554 Que l'injure échappe à ma vengeance plutôt qu'un si rare bienfait [échappe] à ma reconnaissance.—L'injure = "wrong" here; often = "insult."
555 Supply: "if this service went unrewarded." Cf. Verg. Aen. I, 48-49.
558 Que. See App. IV, ii. A.
563 Et = "Then."—D'autant moins goes closely with following que.
569 Que. See App. IV, ii. C.
579 Conseils = "counsels," not "councils."
583-584 An instance of dramatic "irony," by which the poet makes words to be spoken, of which the spectator already knows the untruth.
587 gage is the same word as "wage." Here = "reward." Cf. "the wages of sin is death."
593 Note que, not à quoi.
596 This line explains en vain of l. 595.—Pour vous régler sur eux . . . = "that you should be guided by their practice."—Près de, here "in comparison with," more usually "auprès de," in accordance with the tendency to use compound forms for secondary meanings. Cf. mouvoir and émouvoir; perdu and éperdu.
597 neveux, classical for "posterity." For servir de, see l. 259, N.
600-612 The construction is:
( que ce mortel . . . fût mené;
j'e voudrais ( que, pour comble . . ., un seigneur . . .
( guidât . . . et criât . . .
603 orné refers to coursier.
604 dans has the force of "through the streets of."
605 comble from Latin cumulus, the "heap" that tops a full measure. Hence its connotation is generally, though not always, favorable. E.g., Combler de faveurs.—Le comble de l'ingratitude est de haïr ses bienfaiteurs.—Le voleur, poursuivi, se réfugia dans les combles du château.—Au comble de la misère.
607 enfin, see l. 160, N.
614 This line explains ingenuously enough the reason for the statement in l. 613.
616 il refers to preceding ce.
619 prétends = "mean."
622 fais—"see."
625-628 The apodosis begins with Plus j'assure. . . .
630 en. See App. V, ii. C.
633 sans être attendue = "unsummoned."
635 Je me meurs. Se mourir is either more elevated in style than mourir, or = "to die slowly."
637 suis-je pas? The omission of ne, the one real negative particle, is only possible as a poetical license, and is rightly very rare.—Frère, a classical strong form for "friend."
644 encore un coup, = "once more." Coup enters into many idioms. Cf. Le coup de grâce.—Le coup de l'étrier.—La ville fut prise par un coup de main.—Venez me donner un coup de main.—Il s'est engagé par coup de tête.—Un coup d'essai, de maître, d'éclat.—Un coup de pied.—Après coup.—Coup sur coup.—A coup sûr.—C'est un coup monté.
648 d'effroi depends on combien.
649 la foudre, because the king can strike as suddenly and irresistibly as the thunderbolt.
653 étincelle, lit. "sparkles," but here: "flashes."
654 The Parsees, in Asia, worship fire to this day. The king here invokes his gods, the sun and stars.
656 peine is never "physical pain."
661 se pouvoir is only used impersonally, = "to be possible."
676 en. See App. V, ii. C.—Astres ennemis is in accordance with the astrological superstitions of the time.
678 respectable, in its full etymological sense of "worthy of respect."
681 interêt, see l. 57, N.
686 veut = "bids."
690 entre, here "above."
692 grâce devant vos yeux = "favor in your sight."
693 fûtes, in the past definite, expresses that he may have been favorable to her in the past, in a period of time that has come to an end, implying "even though he be so no more." See App. II, ii. B. b.
701 qu'on lui fasse entendre = "give him to understand." For dat. lui, see App. III, N.
708 clartés, properly "lights;" the plural being, as often is the case, the concrete manifestation of that quality of which the singular is the abstract name. Cf. "charity" and "charities."
713 Que vous semble. See App. IV, i. B.
714 devoir is here used as a pseudo-auxiliary; see l. 155, N,—L'emporter, idiomatic for "to win the day." The substantive, for which the fossilized pronoun le stands, is uncertain. Cf. l'échapper belle, idiomatic for "to have a narrow escape."
778 Note the force of the tense: "I never [once] admired." See App. II, ii. B. b.
779 Note the difference between avoir envie de and porter envie a.
799 errer is never, while "to err" is always used figuratively.
820 en. See App. V, ii. D.
825 rejoindre = "to join." This prefix re- is more freely used in French than in English. Cf. recopier = "to copy."
826 See Book of Esther, vi. 13-14, for the few lines on which Racine has built the two strong scenes that follow. Also i. 6, for the description of the grandeur of this "court of the garden of the king's palace."
832 éclaircir is "to restore to its own brightness;" éclairer is "to throw a light from without upon." Cf. l. 177.
835 ressentir, from re + sentir. Note the doubling of the "s," in order to preserve its sound as in sentir. Cf. ressembler, ressource, ressusciter, etc.
aussi cette félicité, i.e., the joy of having been favored as mentioned in l. 834, as well as the pain of the affront.
836 le mal is of course a reference to ll. 618-622; le bienfait, to l. 702.
838-843 Racine had great experience of court. See Introd. I.—Dévorer, figurative, "to endure in silence." Cf. dévorer ses larmes = "to restrain one's tears."
841 essuyer, fig. = "to put up with something disagreeable," the figure being taken from wiping up spilt liquid, as the way to make the best of a mishap. E.g., _Il essuya un refus—Ce vaisseau a essuyé une tempête—Ce général avait essuyé plusieurs défaites.
842 un outrage endure. For this Latin construction, see l. 139, N.
868 exerçant, "wielding," correctly refers to the speaker, Haman, as the king's minister.
872 ma vie exposée, another Latin construction.
874 Que sert. See App. IV, i. A.
881 le peuple. Cf. l. 56, N.
890 For the spelling voi (which is etymologically correct, seeing that no first person singular ends in "s" in Lat.), see App. I, Rhyme.
892 Cf. Claudian, In Rufinum, I. 22, 23.
. . . tolluntur in altum
Ut lapsu graviore ruant.
894 ces bords écartés, i.e., Macedonia. We have already referred to Rest of the Book of Esther, xvi. 10, where Haman is described as a Macedonian.
896-897. See l. 485, N.
898 For enfin, see l. 160, N.
910 Note the skillful way in which the poet shows Haman so possessed with his grief that he can entertain no other thought.
911 ce chagrin, i.e., that betrayed by l. 910.
928 dès longtemps, in prose depuis longtemps. See l. 75 N.
934 en, see App. V, ii. C.
935 se resserre = "is wrung."
938 ne le connaître pas. This position of pas, after the infinitive, is elegant and emphatic.
946 croître is transitive only in poetry.
955 Suspendez = "A truce to. . . ."
956 puissent is so frequently used to express an exclamative wish, that it usually drops the que, which here however is retained.
962 encore, i.e., in addition to that fear.
992 riche is the subst.—Sous la loi goes closely after gémisse.
1008 For servir de, see l. 259, N.
1012 camp = "host."
1021 For the virtual superlative si sage, cf. l. 541.
1024 Dussiez-vous, = quand même vous devriez. This elegant use of the imperf. subj. with subject pronoun inverted (= quand même and the conditional) is generally confined to the auxiliaries, or pseudo-auxiliaries, such as savoir, pouvoir, falloir, etc. In the third person sing. however, where the verb-forms are less unwieldly, other verbs may be so used: it is a matter of euphony.—For the previous offer, see l. 660.
1039 aurait puise. Note this conditional past of hypothetical statement. It always implies that the speaker is unwilling to indorse the statement on his own responsibility.
Jour means: 1. "day;" 2. "day-light;" 3. any "light,"; physical (as in un abat-jour) or figurative, e.g., l. 1136; 4. "birth," cf. l. 1277; 5. in plural, "life."
1047 contrée, always = "region."
1050 Here begins a magnificent passage where elevation of language almost reaches inspiration.
1053 qu'on outrage—an adj., "oppressed."
1059 See 2 Kings, xvii. 5-23. Shalmaneser, in 718 B.C., took captive the kingdom of Israel, and Nebuchadnezzar II., the kingdom of Juda in 606. The captivity of the Jews under the Assyrians lasted 70 years, 606-536 B.C., when they obtained leave from Cyrus to return to Palestine. See Introd., section 4, Chron. Table.
1062-3 Isaiah xlv. 1-3: "Thus saith the Lord to his anointed, to Cyrus, whose right hand I have holden, to subdue nations before him, and I will loose the loins of kings; to open the doors before him, and the gates will not be shut, I will go before thee, and make the rugged places plain: I will break in pieces the doors of brass, and cut in sunder the bars of iron; and I will give thee the treasures of darkness, and hidden riches of secret places." For the Persian kings of these times, see Introd. section 4. Cyrus reigned about 560-530 B.C.
1068 son temple détruit, another Latin construction.—Nebuchadnezzar II. destroyed the temple of Jerusalem after his capture of the city in 587 B.C.
1073 sortait, a most instructive use of the imperfect; the narrative pauses in the succession of events, to lay stress on the happy state now prevailing. See App. II, ii. A.
1075 son fils, Cambyses (reigned 529-522 B.C.).
1077 vous, on the assumption that Ahasuerus is Darius (reigned 521-485 B.C.).
1082 en. See App. V, ii. C.
1086 La Thrace, near enough to Macedonia for the queen's oratorical purposes. Thracia (now N. E. Roumelia), like Scythia (l. 1096), was then a remote and almost unknown region, whose inhabitants were all "barbarians."
1096 sqq. Esther is supremely skillful in laying to the king's credit all that can flatter his pride, and charging all she complains of against this Scythe impitoyable: a name all the more hateful to the king as Darius had led an army against the Scythians and lost it (513 B.C.), although Esther puts the expedition in a more flattering light in l. 1116.
1104 Que. See App. IV, i. A.
1123 Saul, first king of the Israelites, was the son of Kish, a Benjamite (I Sam. ix. 1-2), and Mordecai is also stated (Book of Esther ii. 5) to be the son of Kish, a Benjamite.
1127 Impossible to anticipate more skillfully the retort that Mordecai should have honored the king's favorite.
1135 convert de votre pourpre makes the offence almost personal to the king.
1136 For jour, see l. 1039, N.
1141 achever = "to finish." Tr. "come down in thy fullness."
1146 crédit, see l. 171.
1151 vos ennemis aussitôt massacrés, another Lat. construction. These lines are a very skillful revelation of Haman's character; he attempts to bribe the queen by the offer of that which would seem most desirable to himself.
1162 en. See App. V, ii. D.
1168 The king interprets Haman's attitude as an attempt at violence.
1175 repaisse. Cf. Verg. Aen. VIII, 265: nequeunt expleri corda tuendo.
1190 est expiré (on the analogy of est mort), for a expiré, which would be impossible in classical French poetry. See App. I, Hiatus. The result is more stress on the state, instead of on the action.
1193 Cf. Juvenal, x. 66.
Seianus ducitur unco
Spectandus.
1194 "O king, live forever!"
1196 entends, as very frequently, = "understand." Note a third use: "to understand by one's own words," i.e., "to mean."
1213 Je n'ai fait que passer may be translated: "before I had passed by;" lit. "I only passed by," I needed not to wait, in order to witness the short-lived triumph of the wicked.
1214 surprendre = "to take unawares."
1231 couronnée = "on the throne."
1256 se plaît de, now rather se plaît à.
1264 Cf. Ps. xviii. 9; "he bowed the heavens also, and came down."
1267 Jeune peuple. Cf. l. 56, N. There is also an allusion to the reconstitution of the Jews as a nation, promised by the king, ll. 1182-1189.
1280 Note that nous is dative. See App. III, N.
APPENDIX I.
FRENCH VERSE.
French verse, as found in the classical writers, consists of lines in which the principal factor is the number of syllables (loosely called pieds in French, as well as syllabes), and not, as in English, the number of accents.
METRE.
The "heroic verse," or grand vers in French, is the hexamètre, or vers alexandrin: the former name being due to the fact that this line consists of two halves or hémistiches of six syllables each; the latter a name derived from the poet Alexandre de Bernay, who, in the latter half of the twelfth century, first used this metre in his celebrated epic of "Alexandre."
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 E.g., Esth. l. 2.: Que béni soit le ciel || qui te rend à mes voeux!
Lyric poetry may have lines of any number of syllables.
E.g., Esth. l. 1241: Rompez vos fers 4 sylls. l. 970: Ses criminels attentats 7 " l. 722: En un moment s'est-il évanoui 10 "
All syllables, mute or otherwise, are counted except, (1) when a 'mute e' is elided before a word beginning with a vowel or 'mute h,' e.g.,
1 2 3 4 5 6
l. 1: Est-ce toi, chèr(e) Élis(e)? = 6 sylls.;
(2) at the end of a line, where the 'mute e' is reckoned with the preceding sounded syllable, which is thus made a "feminine rhyme," e.g.;
1 2 3 4 5 6 l. 7 . . . || est cher à ma mémoire! = 6 sylls.
It is for this reason that Racine avails himself (ll. 92, 436, 514, 1232) of the license to spell encor instead of encore, thereby reducing the word by one syllable:
1 2 3 4 5 6 l. 436 . . . || le voit encor la nuit;
and conversely he writes jusques for jusque before au, to prevent the elision and keep the word dissyllabic, in
1 2 3 4 5 6 l. 136 Sion, jusques au ciel: || . . . .
Similarly in l. 426, for the simpler expression
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Tous révèrent à genoux,
he writes,
1 2 3 4 5 6 Tout révèr(e) à genoux, ||
reducing the seven syllables of the former to a correct hemistich.
CAESURA.
Between the two hemistiches of an hexameter there must be a pause, called la césure, or 'caesura.'
RHYME.
French poetry being less rhythmical than English, owing to the absence of strong word-accents, makes up the deficiency by much greater stress on rhyme. In French verse, rhyme not only is almost indispensable, but must, in a measure, satisfy the eye as well as the ear. For instance, words ending in 's' 'x' or 'z' can only rhyme with words also ending in one of these three letters. Hence, the use of such obsolete forms as voi for vois (ll. 890, 947); the latter could not rhyme with moi or roi.
French rhymes are called "feminine" when they have a 'mute e' in or after their last sounded syllable; e.g., descendue, mémoire, armées, coururent, cabales, assassinaient are feminine rhymes. In all other cases they are called 'masculine' rhymes.
In heroic verse the masculine and feminine rhymes are generally found in alternating pairs. In lyrics, however, they are freely crossed, but with this restriction, that one rhyme of either kind is never found next to a different one of the same kind, i.e., two different masculines or feminines are never found in juxtaposition.
HIATUS.
Two sounded vowels coming together form a "hiatus." A hiatus between a vowel at the end of a word and another at the beginning of the next, is forbidden. Hence, l. 546, where the straightforward expression would have been lui échappe, Racine wrote the equivalent nous échappe, in order to avoid the hiatus.
Lastly, a sounded vowel, followed by an unelided 'mute e,' must be at the end of the line. Thus the word Mardochée must always be at the end of the line, or else be followed by a word beginning with a vowel or 'mute h,' so that its 'mute e' may be elided. Cf. ll. 44, 618, and 156, 459, etc. Such words as armées, joies, etc., whose 'mute e' cannot be elided, can never occur in the body of the line. The only exception is made in favor of the verb-endings in -oient and -aient. Cf. ll. 527, 1111.
In French poetry, as in French grammar, 'mute h' always = a vowel, and 'aspirate h' = a consonant.
The rules given above apply to classical French poetry only. The modern poetical schools of the nineteenth century have been taking liberties with them, especially with the caesura. The latest school of French poets, the symbolistes or décadents as they style themselves, are attempting to overthrow every one. At their hands the caesura has finally disappeared, and the following form, called a ternaire, has become possible:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Où je filai | pensivement | la blanche laine. (Th. de Banville.)
Then the 'mute e's' are disregarded:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Avec les filles | du vieux seigneur | en robes blanches.
(H. de Régnier.)
The number of syllables is of little account:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
_Des mortes douces | qui moururent là | quelque soir.
(H. de Régnier).
The hiatus is no longer tabooed, and lastly, not only the artificial rules of rhyme, but rhyme itself, is being done away with: assonance may take its place. If the constitution of the French language did not make it unlikely that these reforms should prove permanent, the vehicle of French poetic thought would become mere harmonious prose.
APPENDIX II.
THE PAST TENSES IN FRENCH.
The English praeterite being the equivalent of three tenses in French, it is of the utmost importance that a clear idea of the shades of meaning conveyed by the latter should be firmly possessed.
i.
WHENEVER REPETITION OF THE ACTION IS IMPLIED the IMPARFAIT is used.
The force, in English, is "used to . . .," "kept . . . -ing," etc.
E.g., Esth. l. 6: m'aidais à soupirer . . . "wast wont to sigh with me."
l. 83: . . . disais-je, . . . = "I would say"
ii.
WHEN NO REPETITION OF THE ACTION IS IMPLIED.
A. IF THE ACTION IS CONSIDERED AS BEING SIMPLY IN PROGRESS, WITHOUT REFERENCE EITHER TO ITS BEGINNING OR TO ITS END, again the IMPARFAIT is used.
The force, in English, is "was . . . -ing."
E.g., l. 12: je vivais séparée = "I was living apart."
l. 58: . . . attendaient leur arrêt = "were awaiting their doom."
B. IF THE ACTION IS STATED WITH REFERENCE EITHER TO ITS BEGINNING, OR
TO ITS END, OR TO BOTH, the PASSÉ DÉFINI is used.
Thus a. Simple occurrence, which is the introduction of a new action now beginning to take place, takes the passé défini.
E.g., l. 19: . . . ajouta-t-il, . . . = "he [then] added."
l. 26: . . . qui sauva nos aïeux = "which [once before] saved our forefathers."
l. 494.: il trembla pour sa vie = "he began to tremble for his life."
b. Continuous duration through a completed period of time which may be expressed or implied, takes the passé défini.
E.g., l. 4: . . . fus de mes premiers ans la compagne assidue = "wast the constant companion of my earliest years."
l. 272: . . . qui ne furent jamais = "who never [in all time] had existence."
l. 477: . . . il fut des Juifs = "there was once [but is no more] a race of Jews."
NOTE that the action may be stated as recurring a given or indefinite number of times, and yet the verb will not be in the imperfect.
E.g., l. 249: Mon pere mille fois m'a dit . . .
l. 531: Et j'ai pâli deux fois. . . .
If the imperfect were used here, the meaning would be "My father used to tell me a thousand times," i.e., he told me 1000 X n times, and in the second sentence, "I grew pale 2 X n times."
The student is recommended to account to himself carefully for the different tenses used in contrast to one another in the following passages:
ll. 4 and 6; 72 and 73; 1058 sqq. and 1073; 1074 to 1082.
PASSÉ INDÉFINI.
With regard to the third tense, the PASSÉ INDÉFINI, there is no difficulty. It is used:
A. Precisely like the English compound of the past.
E.g., l. 30: le ciel a-t-il conduit . . . = "has heaven brought about. . ."
l. 158: a . . . conduit vos pas = "has guided your footsteps."
B. As a colloquial form of the passe defini in all its uses.
E.g., l. 24: j'ai su trouver = "I succeeded in finding."
l. 399: . . . que j'ai laissé plus calme = "whom I left . . ."
APPENDIX III.
ACTIVE INFINITIVES WITH PASSIVE MEANING.
Faire, laisser, and a very few verbs of physical perception, such as voir, entendre, sentir, are idiomatically used before an active infinitive which assumes a passive meaning. E.g., J'ai fait faire un habit, "I have had a coat made."
These constructions are due to the dropping of the obvious subject of the infinitive ("I made [the tailor] make a coat") which must be supplied in order to account for the form.
E.g., Esth. l. 9: . . . je te fais chercher = _que je fais [mes esclaves] te chercher.
l. 146: Quand verrai-je relever tes remparts = quand verrai-je [tes fils] relever tes remparts.
l. 386: Sa voix s'est fait entendre = sa voix a fait [nous] entendre elle-même.
l. 731: laissant de ses eaux partager le secours = laissant [cette main] partager le secours de ses eaux.
For other instances of this construction, see ll. 110, 181, 394, 407, 523.
This construction is possible in English: . . . "for whose sake Artemis let slay the boar" (Swinburne, Argument of "Atalanta in Calydon.")
NOTE. It should be borne in mind that, should the subject of the infinitive be expressed, whenever the infinitive is transitive, that subject may (and if the first verb is faire, must) be put in the dative case, or in the oblique case with par. Thus in l. 52,
Il me fit d'un empire accepter l'espérance,
me is dative and not accusative. Similarly in l. 1280,
Il nous fait remporter une illustre victoire,
nous is dative.
APPENDIX IV.
QUE, CONJUNCTIVE AND ADVERBIAL.
The interrogative pronouns are Qui? = "Who?" or "Whom?" and quoi? = "What?" the latter having the conjunctive form que, which, as is the case with all conjunctives, must be used in preference to the disjunctive form, if possible.
i.
The CONJUNCTIVE QUE is used:
A. Instead of accusative quoi:
Esth. l. 161: Que nous annoncez-vous?
l. 593: Que penses-tu?
Also ll. 637, 675, 762, 1078, 1104, etc.
In Que sert? (ll. 874 and 333), the que is probably the accus. conjunctive, due to a confusion in the construction of servir. (See N. to l. 259)
B. Instead of nominative quoi, when followed by the formal subject ce or il.
E.g., Qu'est-ce? Qu'est-ce que c'est? etc.
Esth. l. 596: Que sont-ils?
l. 713: Que vous semble? ( = Que vous semble-t-il?)
ii.
QUE is used ADVERBIALLY:
A. As an interrogative = "why," followed by ne and no pas.
E.g. Esth. l. 558: Que n'a-t-il plus tôt demandé son salaire?
Also, but very rarely, in the affirmative.
E.g., l. 523: Que tardez-vous?
B. As an exclamative = "how!"
E.g., l. 465: Que ce temps est long à mon impatience!
Also ll. 691, 735, 946.
C. As a relative of time = "when."
E.g., l. 569: Sur le point que la vie, etc.
APPENDIX V.
EN.
Reference to the derivation of this word will do much to remove the difficulty attending a clear understanding of its various functions.
i.
EN, PREPOSITION, from the Latin in, offers no stumbling-block save in its second use = "as" or "like."
Eg., Esth. l. 1192: on va donner en spectacle = "as a spectacle."
l. 174; il nous croit en horreur = "he thinks us an object of horror." Cf. also l. 246 and l. 1177.
In Corneille's "Le Cid" (l. 318) vivre en infâme = "to live [as] an infamous man."
ii.
EN, CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUN, from the Latin inde ("hence," "from that," etc.) is used:
A. As an ordinary genitive = "of" or "from it, him," "her," "them," etc.
B. As a partitive accusative; as we might say in English: "I will take of that."
These two uses are too frequent to require illustration.
C. With the force of "on account of that," "for that," when it is not always to be translated in English.
E.g., Esth. l. 234: Nous n'en verrons pas moins, etc. = "none the less [for that]." Cf. also l. 630.
l. 934: . . . _et j'en frémis = "I shudder at the sight," lit., "because of this," viz., because this man is Haman.
l. 1082: Les Juifs . . . en poussèrent des cris, i.e. on account of this promise of mildness given by the king.
D. In a number of expressions where, from constant use, it has become, so to speak, stereotyped:
E.g., l. 1144: J'en atteste = "I call to witness [for the truth of this] . . ."
l. 1162: C'en est fait = "It is all over [with my pride]." Cf. l. 164, where c'en est fait d'Israël would be equally correct.
l. 820: Il n'en est pas ainsi de = "such is not the case with."
E. In a few semi-idiomatic expressions, with a generalizing force due to the broadening of the meaning "on account of this," "in this matter," into that of "in any matter."
Eg., l. 375: on s'en peut reposer sur ma foi = "I am ever to be trusted."
Cf. Si vous m'en croyez = "If you will be guided by me."
NOTE. This generalization mainly results in a figurative force; E.g., En venir à = "to be reduced to;" en passer par là = "to have to submit to that."
VOCABULARY
A
à, to, for, with, in. abaisser, to lower, abase; s'—, to bow down. abandonner, to abandon, deliver up, forsake. abattre, to beat down. abîme, m., abyss, chasm. abolir, to abolish, wipe out. abondance, f., abundance. abri, m., shelter; mettre à l'—, to shield. absolu, absolute. abuser, to deceive. accabler, to overwhelm, crush. accepter, to accept; ne pas —, to decline. accompagner, to accompany. accord, m., chord (of music). accorder, to grant. accourir, to run, flock. acheter, to buy. achever (de), to finish. acte, m., act. action, f., action, deed. adieu, farewell. admettre, to admit. admirer, to admire, marvel at. adopter, to adopt. adorer, to worship. adoucir, to soften. adresser (s'), to appeal, adroit, skilful, clever. adultère, criminal. affecter de, to claim to. affliger, to distress. affranchir, to rid. affreu-x, -se, hideous, awful. affront, m., affront, insult. affronter, to brave. âge, m., age, years. agir, to act; — sur, to work upon. agité, tossed; — de, disturbed, fretting over. agiter, to disturb. agneau, m., lamb. agreable, agreeable, sweet, acceptable. aider, to aid, assist. aïeux, m. pl., ancestors, forefathers. aigrir, to sour, embitter. aile, f., wing. ailleurs, elsewhere. aimable, lovable, sweet, easy. aimer, to love. ainsi, thus; — quo, as well as; il en est — de, such is the case with. airain, m., brass. alarme, f., alarm, fear. alarmé, alarmed, frightened. allegresse, f., joy. aller, to go. allumer, to light, kindle. alors, then, at the time, in those days. altéré de, thirsting for. alternativement, alternately. alti-er, -ère, haughty. Amalécite, Amalekite. Aman, Haman. amas, m., heap. amasser, to heap up, collect. amateur, m., lover. ame, f., soul. amener, to bring, bring round. amertume, f., bitterness. ami (de), m., friend (to). amitié, f., friendship, affection. amour, m., love. an, m., year. anéantir, to bring to naught. ange, m., angel. animé, animated; — a, keen, bent upon; — de, fired with. annales, f. pl., (yearly) records. annoncer, to announce, bring news. antique, ancient, aged. apaiser, to appease, s'—, to be appeased. appareil, m., show. appartement, m., apartment, room, private rooms. appeler, to call, summon, court; faire —, to summon. appesanti, weighing, laid heavily. applaudir, to applaud; s'— de, to enjoy, rejoice in. apprendre, to learn, teach, tell. apprêter, to make ready. approcher (de), to draw near, be nigh to. appui, m., aid, support, might. appuyer, to confirm, s'— sur, to lean upon. après, after. aquilon, m., north-wind. arbitre, m., master, lord. ardent, glowing. arme, f., arm, weapon. armée, f., army, host. armer, to arm, use as a weapon; s'—, to take up arms. arracher, to tear off. arrêt, m., decree, order, doom. arrêter, to restrain. arriver, to arrive, come round. artifice, m., art, artfulness, cunning, deception, malice. Asie, f; Asia. asile, m., asylum, refuge, abode. aspect, m., aspect, sight. aspirer à, to strive to. assassinat, m., assassination, murder. assassiner, to murder. assembler, to assemble, gather together. asaeoir, to seat; s'—, to sit. assez, enough. assidu (à), constant (in). assiéger, to besiege. assurer, to make sure, safeguard, reassure. astre, m., star (i.e. any heavenly body). atours, m. pl., attire, garments. attacher, to bind, fasten, rivet. atteinte, f., impression. attendre, to await, wait for, expect. attentat, m., crime. attenti-f, -ve, attentive. attester, to call upon. attirer, to attract, provoke. attrait, m., attraction, charm, spell. audace, f., audacity. audacieu-x, -se, audacious, bold; m., bold person. auguste, august, noble, royal. aujourd'hui, to-day. auprès de, near, about, by the side of. aurore, f., dawn. aussi, also. aussitôt, at once, instantly. austère, strict. austérité, f., austerity, seriousness. autant (que), as much (as); d'— moins, so much the less. autel, m., altar. auteur, m., author; les —s de mes jours, the authors of my being; i.e. my parents. autre, other, different, another. autrefois, former, of yore. autrui, m., other people, others. avancer (s'), to advance. avant, before (in time); — tout, first of all. avantage, m., advantage, privilege, merit. avec, with. avenir, m., future. aversion, f., aversion, dislike, hatred. aveugle, blind. aveuglement, m., blindness. aveugler, to blind. avide (de), greedy, thirsting (for). avis, m., opinion, advice, notice, information. avoir, to have. avouer, to confess,
B
baiser, to kiss. baisser, to lower. balance, f., scales. bandeau, m., fillet, (part of royal headdress). bannir, to banish. barbare, barbarous. barriere, f., barrier, rampart, defence, bas, -se, low. bassesse, f., evil. beau, bel, belle, beautiful beaucoup, much. beauté, f., beauty. bénir, to bless. besoin, m., need. bien, well. bien, m., blessing; —s, wealth. bien-fait, m., benefit, service, favor, blessing. bienheureu-x, -se, happy, thrice happy. bientôt, soon. blasphémer, to blaspheme. boire, to drink. bon, -ne, good, kind. bonheur, m., happiness, success. bonté, f., goodness; —s, mercies. bord, m., edge, shore. borne, f., limit. borner, to limit. bouche, f., mouth, lips. bout, m., end. bras, m., arm. braver, to defy. breuvage, m., beverage. bride, f., bridle. brigue, f., canvass, party. briguer, to canvass for, solicit, brillant, brilliant, bright. briller, to shine. briser, to break, dash. bruit, m., noise, rumor, report. but, m., goal.
C
cabale, f., cabal, plot. cacher (à), to hide (from). calme, m., calm, peace. calme, calm. calmer, to calm. calomnie, f., calumny. campagne, f., fields. cantique, m., hymn. caprice, m., fickleness, capriciousness. capti-f, -ve, m., f., captive, prisoner, slave; also adj. captivité, f., captivity. carnage, m., slaughter. cause, f., case. causer, to cause, give. ce, cet, m., cette, f., this, that, it; ces, pl., these, those. cèdre, m., cedar. célèbre, celebrated, famous. célébrer, to celebrate, sing. celui, m., celle, f., he, she, the one; ceux, m. pl; celles, f. pl., those. cendre, f., ashes. cent, a hundred. cependant, meanwhile, however. certain, certain, assured. cesser, to cease. chacun, each. chagrin, m., grief, gloom. Chaldée, f., Chaldaea. Chaldéen, m., Chaldee. chaleur, f., heat, warmth. chambre, f., chamber, room. champ, m., field. chanceler, to stagger, waver. chant, m., song. chanter, to sing. chaque, each, every, charmant, delightful. charmer, to charm, soothe. chasser, to chase, drive away. châtier, to chastise, punish. châtiment, m., punishment. chef, m., chief. chemin, m., road, path, way. ch-er, -ère, dear, precious. chercher, to seek. chéri, cherished, beloved. chérir, to love, cherish. cheveux, m. pl., hair. chez, at or in, or to the house or apartments of. choeur, m., chorus. choisir, to choose. choix, m., choice. chose, f., thing; quelque —, something, anything. chute, f., fall, downfall. ciel, m., cieux, pl., sky, heaven. cilice, m., hair-shirt. clarté, f., tight; —s, wisdom. clemence, f., clemency, mercy. climat, m., climate, clime. coeur, m., heart. colère, f., anger, wrath. colombe, f., dove. combat, m., battle. combattre, to combat, fight. combien, how, how much. comble, m., height; pour — de gloire, for crowning glory. combler de, to load with (good things). commander, to command, bid. comme, as, like, how. commencer, to begin. commettre, to commit; entrust. compagne, f., companion. comparaître, to appear (in answer to summons). comparer, to compare. complot, m., plot. compter, to count, reckon, hold. condamnable, blameworthy. condamner, to condemn. conduire, to conduct, lead, guide, bring about. conduite, f., conduct, practice; ordering, management. confiance, f., trust. confident, -e, confidant, confidential friend. confier, to confide; se — to trust. confondre, to confound, put to confusion. conforme, suitable. confus, confused, troubled. conjurer, to beseech. connaître, to know, distinguish, spare. consacrer, to commemorate. conseil, m., counsel, advice; council. conserver, to preserve. conspirer, to agree. consulter, to consult. consumer, to consume. contempler, to gaze upon. content, glad, satisfied. contenter, to satisfy. coner, to relate. contraire, contrary; au —, on the contrary. contre, against. contrée, f., region, land. contre-temps, m., untoward event, accident. convier, to invite. corps, m., body. corriger, to correct. côté, m., side; de tous —s, on all sides. couchant, m., setting sun, west. couler, to now. couleur, f., color, false color, false reason. coup, m., blow; tout à —, suddenly; encore un —, once more. coupable, guilty; m., offender. coupe, f., cup, goblet. couple, m., pair. cour, f., court. courber, to bend; se — to bow down. courir, to run. couronner, to crown. courroux, m., wrath. cours, m., course, vent. coursier, m., charger (horse). couteau, m., (sacrificial) knife. couvrir, to cover. craindre, to fear. crainte, f., fear. crédit, m., influence, power. crédule, credulous. cri, m., cry. crier, to shout. criminel, criminal. croire, to believe, think. croître, to increase. cruauté, f., cruelty. culte, m., worship, religion. curieu-x, -se, curious, inquisitive; désir —, curiosity.
D
daigner, to condescend, deign. danger, m., danger, peril. dans, in, into, to. de, of, from, by, with, in, on, among. débris, m., wreck, ,ruins. déceler, to betray. déchirer, to tear up. déclamer, to declaim, speak. déclarer, to declare. découvrir, to disclose, reveal. dédaigner, to spurn. dédain, m., disdain. dédans, au —, within. dédier, to dedicate. défendre, to defend, forbid. défense, f., defence, protection. degré, m., step (in a flight of stairs). déguiser, to disguise. dehorg; au —, outside, without. déjà, already. delà, au —, beyond. délices, f. pl., delights. délivrer, to rid. demlain, to-morrow. demander, to ask, demeurer, to remain. démon, m., devil. dépendre (de), to depend (upon), rest (with). dépit, m., vexation, wrath. déplorable, deplorable, miserable, woful. déployer, to unfold, stretch forth. déposer, to deposit, lay down. dépôt, m., deposit, thing entrusted, trust. dépouille, f., spoils. dépouiller, to strip, put off. depuis, since, for. derni-er, -ère, last. dérober (se) à, to steal away from. derrière, behind. des, as early as, in; — longtemps, for a long time past. descendre, to descend, come down, be descended. désert, m., desert. désespoir, m., despair. désir, m., desire, wish; — curieux, curiosity. désolé, distressed, miserable. désoler, to distress, decimate. désordre, m., disorder, confusion. désormais, henceforth. dessein, m., design. dessiller, to open (the eyes). destin, m., fate. destinée, f., destiny, fate. détacher, to divert. detestable, abominable. détester, to detest, hate. détourer, to turn away, avert, deflect. détruire, to destroy. deux, two. devancer, to anticipate, come before, rise before. devant, before, in front of, in the sight of. développer, to unravel. devenir, to become. devin, m., seer. devoir, to owe, have to, be to. devoir, m., duty. dévorer, to devour, swallow up, consume, put up with. diadème, m., diadem, crown. dicter, to dictate, suggest. Dieu, m., God. différer, to postpone, delay. digne, worthy. dire, to say, speak. discerner (de), to distinguish (from). discorde, f., discord. discours, m., speech. disgrâce, f., disfavor, downfall. disparaître, to disappear. disperser, to disperse, scatter. disputer, to fight for. dissimuler, to disemble, conceal. dissiper, to dispel, scatter. divin, divine, godsent. Divinité, f., divinity, godhead, God. diviser, to separate, be aloof. dix, ten. docile, docile, obedient. domestique, m., member of the household, officer. don, m., gift. donc, then, (often merely emphatic and not to be translated). donner, to give. dont, (genitive of qui,) of which, of whom; with which, with whom; by which, by whom. douceur, f., mildness, gentleness, favor, sweetness, sweets, joys. douleur, f., grief, woes. doute, m., doubt; sans —, doubtless. dou-x, -ce, sweet, favorable. droit, m., right. durant, during. durée, f., duration. dussiez, imp. subj. of devoir; — -vous, even though you were to.
E
eau, f., water. éblouir, to dazzle. écarté, remote. écarter, to remove, dispel, drive away. échapper à, to escape. éclair, m., lightning. éclaircir, to clear up. éclairer, to light, shine upon, enlighten. éclat, m., brilliancy, lustre, show; montrer avec —, to show to all men. éclatant, brilliant, striking. éclater, to burst, burst forth, be far-reaching; faire —, to show forth. éclore, to blossom. écouter, to listen to, hear. écrire, to write. écueil, m., rock. édit, m., edict, order, decree. effacer, to efface. effet, m., effect; en —, indeed. effort, m., effort, attempt. effrayant, terrifying. effrayer, to frighten, terrify. effroi, m., terror. effroyable, awful, terrible. égal, equal, the same; à l'— de, on a par with, equally with. égaler, to equal. égarer (s'), to stray, égorger, to butcher, slay. Egypte, f., Egypt. élancer (s'), to dart forth. élever, to raise, rear. éloigner, to remove, far away; s'—, to depart. embarras, m. pl; many cares. embarrasser, to perplex. embraser, to set fire to; s'—, to be kindled. embrasser, to embrace, espouse. éminent en, eminent for. emmener, to lead away. empoisonner, to poison, taint. emporter, to carry away; l'—, to win the day. empreint, imprinted. empressé, eager. empresser (s'), to be eager to. emprunter, to borrow. en, of or from him, her, it, them; some; as a; at it; on that account. en, in. encens, m., incense. enchaîné, chained, tied. enchaînement, m., chain of events. enchaîner, to link. encor, encore, still. endormir (s'), to fall asleep. endroit, m., place, spot. endurer, to endure, put up with. enfance, f., childhood, enfant, m. f., child. enfanter, to beget. enfer, m., enfers, pl., hell. enfin, at length, at last, lastly, in short, anyhow. enflammer, to inflame. enfoncer, to drive deeply. ennemi, m., enemy; adj., hostile. ennui, m., weariness, trouble, ennuyer, to weary; s'— à, to find no pleasure in. entasser, to heap up. entendre, to hear; se faire —, to be heard; to understand; faire —, to give to understand. enti-er, -ère, whole. entraîner, to sweep on, away. entre, between, among, in, above. entrée, f., entrance. envelopper, to wrap. envenimé, venomous. envi; à l'—, vieing with one another. envie, f., envy; porter — à, to envy. envier, to envy. environner, to surround. envisager, to review, consider. envoyer, to send, send forth. épars, scattered. éperdu, bewildered, helpless. épier, to spy. éploré, weeping. épouse, f., wife. épouvantable, terrific. époux, m., husband. épris, enamored. éprouver, to feel, put to the test. ener, to wander. erreur, f., error. esclave, m. f., slave, espérance, f., hope. espérer, to hope, trust, espoir, m., hope. esprit, m., mind, spirit, angel. essaim, m., swarm. essuyer, to wipe up, put up with. eatimer, to esteem. et, and; et . . . et . . ., both . . . and . . . état, m., state, condition. État, m., state (province, etc.). éteindre, to extinguish. étendard, m., standard, banner. éternel, eternal, immortal, ever-lasting; l'—, the Almighty. étinceler, to sparkle, flash. étonner (s'), to be astonished. étrange, strange. étrang-er, -ere, strange, foreign, unknown; m., stranger. être, to be, exist; — à, to belong to. étude, f., study. evanouir (s'), to vanish; to faint. éveiller, s'—, to wake. événement, m., event. éviter, to avoid. éxces, m., excess; — d'honneur, passing great honor. éxciter, to urge. exécrable, execrable, hateful. exécuter, to carry out. exemple, m., example. exercer, to wield. exiler, to exile. expirer, to expire. expliquer, to explain. exposer, to expose, reveal; s'—, to risk one's life, exprimer, to express, describe. exterminer, to exterminate, annihilate.
F
faible, weak. faiblement, weakly, little. faiblesse, f., weakness. faire, to make, do; play, take, speak the part of; c'est fait de, it is all over with. fait, m., fact, deed. faîte, m., top, head. falloir, to be necessary. fameu-x, -se, famous, far-famed. famille, f., family. farouche, fierce. fatal, fatal, fateful. fatiguer, to weary. fau-x, -sse, false. faveur, f., favor; en — de, on behalf of. favorable, favorable, propitious. favori, favorite. fécond, fruitful. feint, feigned, hypocritical. félicité, f., great happiness. femme, f., woman, wife. fer, m., iron, steel, sword; —s, fetters, chains. ferme, firm, strong. fermer, to close. festin, m; feasting, banquet, feast. fête, f., feast, festival. feu, m., fire. fidèle, faithful, constant. fi-er, -ère, proud. fièrement, proudly. figurer, to figure, represent. fil, m., thread. fille, f., girl, daughter. fils, m., son. fin, f., end; à la —, at last. flambeau, m., torch. flatter, to flatter, gratify. flèche, f., arrow. fléchir, to bend. florissant, flourishing, thriving. flotter, to float, waver. foi, f., faith, promise, word, truth, loyalty, faithfulness. fois, f., (repeated) time; e.g. deux —, twice; cent —, a hundred times; à la —, at the same time. fond, m., back, depths. fonder, to base, found, build; fondé sur, strong in, (e.g. based upon). forcer, to force, compel. former, to form, make, contrive, train. fort, m., fort, fortress. fou, folle, mad, senseless. foudre, f., thunder (bolt). foudroyer, to strike down (as by a thunderbolt). foule, f., crowd. fouler, to trample. fragile, frail; roseau —, broken reed. frapper, to strike. fraude, f., deception. frayeur, f., fear. frémir, to shudder, tremble. frémissement, m., thrill, shudder. frère, m., brother, dear friend. frissonner, to shudder. frivole, frivolous. front, m., forehead, brow. frontière, f., frontier. fugiti-f, -ve, fleeing, fleeting. fuir, to fly from, shun. fuite, f., flight. funèbre, funereal, black, dark. funeste, baneful. fureur, f., fury; en —, furious, raging. furieu-x, -se, furious, ravening.
G
gage, m., pledge, token, mark. gagner, to win. garde, m., guard. garder, to keep, observe, gémir, to moan, groan. gémissement, m., moan, groan. généreu-x, -se, generous, lofty. genou, m., knee; à —x, on (their) knees. glacer, to chill; se —, to freeze. glaive, m., sword. gloire, f., glory. glorieu-x, -se, glorious. glorifier, to glorify. goût, m., taste; avoir — à, to have a taste for. goûter, to taste, enjoy. gouverner, to govern, rule, wield. grâce, f., grace, graciousness, charm, attraction, favor; trouver —, to find favor. grand, great, big, large. grand, m., grandee, noble. grandeur, f., greatness, grandeur. graver, to engrave, gré; à son —, at will. grossir, to swell. guerre, f., war. guider, to guide, lead,
H
habillements, m. pl., garments. habiller, to dress. habit, m., coat; fl., clothes, raiment. habiter, to dwell, inhabit. haine, f., hatred. haïr, to hate, loathe. hardi, bold, audacious. harmonic, f., harmony. hasarder, to risk. haut, high, loud; du — de, from the height of. hé, why! what! hé —? what? Hébreu, m., Hebrew, Jew. hélas! alas! Hellespont, Hellespont (the modern Dardanelles). heraut, m., herald. herbe, f., grass. hérésie, f., heresy, false religious doctrine. héritage, m., inheritance. héritier, m., heir. héros, m., hero. heure, f., hour; les —s, time. heureu-x, -se, happy, successful. histoire, f., story. holà! here! homicide, homicidal, murderous. hommage, m., homage. homme, m., man, honneur, m., honor. honorer, to honor. honte, f., shame. honteux, shameful. horreur, f., horror, awe, horrible thing, horrible thought. humain, human; les —s, mankind. humilier, to humble.
I
ici, here, idée, f., thought, mind. idole, f., idol. Idumée, f., Idumaea. ignominie, f., ignominy, shame. ignorer, not to know. illustre, illustrious. image, f., image, vision. immobile, immovable. immoler, to sacrifice. immortel, -le, immortal. impie, impious. impiété, f., impiety, the impious. impitoyable, pitiless. implacable, implacable, unappeasable. implorer, to implore, beseech. important, important, weighty. importer, to be of importance; il n'importe, no matter. imposteur, m., impostor. impuissant, powerless, impotent. impur, unclean, foul. imputer, to ascribe. inanimé, inanimate, lifeless. inconnu, unknown. inconstance, f., inconstancy, restlessness, fickleness. Inde, Indus (river). Indien, m., Indian. indigne, unworthy, shameful. indompté, wild, untamed, indomitable. inévitable, unavoidable. inexorable, inexorable, unmovable. infecter, to pollute. infidèle, faithless, infidel, heretic. inflexible, inflexible, unbending. infortuné, unhappy, unfortunate. ingénieux, ingenious, skilful. ingrat, ungrateful. injure, f., wrong, insult, injury. innocent, innocent, pure. innombrable, innumerable. inouï, unheard of. inqui-et, -ète, anxious. inquiéter, to make anxious. inquiétude, f., anxiety. insensé, senseless, foolish. insipide, insipid, tasteless; devenir —, to pall upon. insolent, m., insolent man. inspirer, to inspire. instrument, m., instrument, means, musical instrument, insulter, to insult; — à, to mock. interdit, confused, perplexed. intéressé, self-seeking. intéresser, to cause to be interested. intérêt, w., interest, self-interest, greed; claim, prize, need, cause. intérieur, inner; palais —, private apartments of a palace. interroger, to examine, 'search the heart of'. interrompre, to interrupt. intestine, civil. introduire, to introduce, show. inutile, useless. invariable, unchanging. inventer, to invent. irrité, angry, angered. irriter, to anger. Israelite, m. f., Israelite, Jew, Jewess; adj. Jewish. issu, sprung. ivre, drunk.
J
jadis, formerly, long ago. jalousie, f., jealousy. jaloux, jealous. jamais, ever; ne . . . —, never. jardin, m., garden. jeter, to throw, cast. jeu, m., game, sport. jeune, young. jeûne, m., fast, fasting. joie, f., joy. jouet, m., toy, plaything, sport. joug, m., yoke. jouir de, to enjoy. jour, m., day, light; voir le —, to be born; mettre au —, to give birth to; —s, life. Jourdain, m., Jordan (river). journée, f., day, date. juger, to judge. Jui-f, -ve, Jew, Jewess. jurer, to swear. jusqu'à, jusques à, as far as, even to. juste, just, merciful; m., just man. justement, justly.