Foods and Their Adulteration / Origin, Manufacture, and Composition of Food Products; Description of Common Adulterations, Food Standards, and National Food Laws and Regulations

FISH.

Fish furnish a very important and useful part of the animal food of man. Both the fish growing in fresh water and in salt water are generally edible. Usually the smaller-sized fish are considered more palatable, but this is not universally the case. The large-sized fish are apt to be coarse, and have a less desirable flavor than those of smaller size. The size of the fish usually depends upon the magnitude of the body of water in which the species grow, the largest being in the lakes and oceans, the medium-size in rivers, and the smallest in brooks. Fish are known chiefly by their common names, and these names are different for the same species of fish in different parts of the country. For instance, the term trout covers a multitude of species, and, likewise, under the term sardine a large number of different species or varieties of fish are considered. There is also a large number of varieties known as salmon, perch, bass, etc.

In the following table are given the common and the scientific names of the principal food fishes used in the United States (see Report of U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, 1888, pages 679-868):

• Acipenseridæ:
• Acipenser sturio oxyrhynchus, Sturgeon.
• Catostomidæ:
• Moxostoma velatum, Small-mouthed red-horse.
• Clupeidæ:
• Clupea harengus, Herring.
• pilchardus, Sardine.
• vernalis, Alewife.
• sapidissima, Shad.
• Salmonidæ:
• Osmerus mordax, Smelt.
• Coregonus clupeiformis, Whitefish.
• sp., tullibee or artedi, Ciscoe.
• Oncorhynchus chouicha, California salmon.
• Salmo salar, Salmon.
• subsp. sebago, Land-locked salmon.
• Salvelinus namaycush, Lake trout.
• fontinalis, Brook trout.
• Esocidæ:
• Esox lucius, Pike.
• reticulatus, Pickerel.
• nobilior, Muskellunge.
• Anguillidæ:
• Anguilla rostrata, Eel.
• Mugilidæ:
• Mugil albula, Mullet.
• Scombridæ:
• Scomber scombrus, Mackerel.
• Scomberomorus maculatus, Spanish mackerel.
• Orcynus thynnus, Tunny.
• Carangidæ:
• Trachynotus carolinus, Pompano.
• Pomatomidæ:
• Pomatomus saltatrix, Bluefish.
• Stromateidæ:
• Stromateus triacanthus, Butter-fish.
• Centrarchidæ:
• Micropterus salmoides, Large-mouthed black bass.
• dolomieu, Small-mouthed black bass.
• Percidæ:
• Perca fluviatilis, Yellow perch.
• Stizostedion vitreum, Wall-eyed pike.
• canadense, Gray pike.
• Serranidæ:
• Roccus lineatus, Striped bass.
• americanus, White perch.
• Centropristis atrarius, Sea bass.
• Epinephelus morio, Red grouper.
• Sparidæ:
• Lutjanus blackfordi, Red snapper.
• Stenotomus chrysops, Porgy.
• Diplodus probatocephalus, Sheepshead.
• Sciænidæ:
• Sciæna ocellata, Red bass.
• Menticirrus saxatilis, Kingfish.
• Cynoscion regale, Weakfish.
• Labridæ:
• Hiatula onitis, Blackfish.
• Gadidæ:
• Phycis chuss, Hake.
• Brosmius brosme, Cusk.
• Melanogrammus æglefinus, Haddock.
• Gadus morrhua, Cod.
• Microgadus tomcod, Tomcod.
• Pollachius virens, Pollock.
• Pleuronectidæ:
• Hippoglossus hippoglossus, Halibut.
• Platysomatichthys hippoglossoides, Turbot.
• Paralichthys dentatus, Flounder.
• Pseudopleuronectes americanus, Flounder.
• Petromyzontidæ:
• Petromyzon marinus, Lamprey eel.
• Raiidæ:
• Raia sp., Skate.

Some of the scientific names in the above list have been modified by recent research, but it is advisable to present the above classification for purpose of reference. The variations from these names will be given in the part of the discussion relating to the food value of fish, in which the classification of Jordan and Evermann is followed.

Edible Portion of Fish.

—As in the case of other animals large parts of fish as taken from the water are inedible. In the preparation of fish the head is usually removed, especially if the fish be of any size, and the entrails rejected. If the fish be scaly, the scales are also removed. The latter vary very greatly in different specimens according to species, size, etc. Usually the edible portion of the fish is larger in quantity than the inedible, though this is not by any means universally the case. Taking fish of all kinds together it may be said that from 55 to 60 percent of the total weight is edible. This, of course, excludes the bones as well as the other portions already referred to.

Principal Constituents of the Flesh of Fish.

—In the flesh of cattle, swine, and other edible animals already mentioned it is seen that the protein is the principal part of the edible portion. In many kinds of meat, however, the fat is the principal portion, as in bacon. In the flesh of fish the albuminoids occupy a more prominent part than in the flesh of domesticated animals or game. In other words the proportion of fat, which is one of the principal ingredients of the flesh of other animals, is less than in the other kinds of flesh. The protein in the water-free substance often constitutes over 90 percent of the total matter, and rarely falls below 80 percent. The next most important constituent of the dry flesh of fish naturally is the fat. The average content of fat in the dry flesh of fish is under 10,—it rarely goes above 20 and sometimes falls as low as 2 or 3 percent. The mineral content of the dry flesh of fish is quite constant. It rarely falls below 4 or goes above 8 percent; 5 percent may be regarded as a fair average content of mineral matter. The mineral matter consists chiefly of phosphate of potash and lime, together with some common salt. In the analyses made by Atwater, adopted in the following pages, he grouped together the fish analyzed in proportion to the quantity of the edible portion or flesh which they contained. Groupings were also made on account of the dry substance in the flesh and in proportion to the water and fat which they contained. These tables are of value showing in a general way the relative food importance of the different specimens of fish. This classification is given in the following table:

Classification of Fishes by Percentages of Flesh, Chiefly Muscular Tissue in Entire Body.

Classification of Fishes by Proportions of Fat in the Flesh of Specimens Analyzed.

Classification of Fishes by Proportions of Water-free Substance in the Flesh of Specimens Analyzed.

In the scientific names of the food fishes described in the following pages and in the description of their habits, methods of spawning, geographic distribution, etc., the classification of Jordan and Evermann[15] has been followed.

Alewives.

—A fish belonging to a genus very close to that to which the herring belongs is known as alewife. The name of the genus is Pomolobus. It is commonly known as a herring. For instance, the fresh-water skipjack or blue herring,—the tailor herring or hickory shad,—and the real alewife or branch herring are all common species of this genus. One specimen of this genus is the fresh-water skipjack or blue herring (Pomolobus chrysochloris) found in the larger streams in the Mississippi valley and also in Lake Erie and Lake Michigan. It is strictly a fresh-water fish, but has also been found in salt water on the Gulf coast. The tailor herring is found along the Atlantic coast from Cape Cod to Florida. In the Potomac river it is known as tailor shad or “fresh-water tailor,” and is highly esteemed as a food fish in Washington and vicinity. Their value is found rather in their coming earlier than the shad than in their true value, for as soon as the shad come in great abundance there is no longer any market for the alewife.

Composition of Alewife.—

This fish, it is seen, has very much less oil in it than the true herring,—in fact, only a little more than one-half as much. It, however, has a correspondingly larger percentage of protein.

The tailor herring and hickory shad are distributed along the coast from Cape Cod to Florida. The branch herring (Pomolobus pseudoharengus) is found along the Atlantic coast as far south as Charleston, entering fresh-water streams to spawn, usually two or three weeks ahead of the shad. It occurs also in Lake Ontario and in several of the small lakes in northern New York in which it is land-locked. The summer herring (Pomolobus æstivalis) also occurs along the Atlantic coast.

Anchovy.

—The anchovy is a small fish which is eaten more as a relish in the pickled state than in the fresh state, and is highly prized by many connoisseurs. Anchovies of various species are found on both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts,—on the Atlantic coast from Cape Cod to Brazil and on the western coast from southern California southward. These fish reach a length of from 2 to 7 inches. The very small ones are sometimes known as “whitebait.” Those that are pickled and used for food are usually from 3 to 6 inches in length.

Composition of Preserved Anchovies.—

Black Bass.

—Two species of black bass are well known to the American fisherman and to the American cuisine. The one is called the small-mouth black bass (Micropterus dolomieu) and the other the large-mouth black bass (Micropterus salmoides). These fishes are found in the fresh waters of the United States, especially in the northern portion, almost everywhere. Both species have been propagated both by the National and State Fish Commissions. Especially have they been introduced into the northeastern waters where they originally did not occur, or only in small numbers.

Bluefish.

—The bluefish (family Pomatomidæ) is one of the valuable food fishes of our Atlantic coast. It is a voracious, carnivorous fish, and apparently loves to destroy as well as to eat. It is stated that the bluefish copies after the style which was once said to be in vogue in Rome, viz., when its stomach is filled it disgorges it for the purpose of eating a new ration. The size of the bluefish runs from 3 to 5 pounds, though occasionally very much larger examples are taken. As a food fish it is said to rank in the estimation of the connoisseur with pompano and Spanish mackerel. The bluefish is one of the popular fishes in all the large markets of the Atlantic coast. The flesh has a fine flavor, but, like the pompano, it does not keep well.

Composition.—

A comparison of the flesh of this fish with the pompano shows that it is particularly a protein food, the fat being even less abundant than the mineral matter. It, therefore, is not so well balanced a ration as the flesh of the pompano and other fish in which the fat forms a considerable portion of the edible matter.

Carp.

—The carp is a fish used very largely for food purposes, but it has not the fine flavor and character of most fishes. The carp cultivated in America is known as the German carp (Cyprinus carpio).

The carp belongs to the large family of fishes known as the minnows or Cyprinidæ. This family is a large one, having about 200 genera and more than 1000 species, all of which are inhabitants of fresh water in North America and Eurasia. None of this family is highly regarded as food in the sense of flavor and aroma, except, perhaps, some of the smaller species. The nutritive value of the carp, however, is probably as great as that of any, but it is coarser and less attractive to the taste. Some of the most common species of this family are the dace, fallfish, river chub, creek chub, squaw-fish, and roach.

Catfish.

—Catfish, of which there are many species, belong to the family of Siluridæ, and are among the most common fresh-water fishes found in the United States. They occur in small as well as large fresh-water streams and lakes, and it is one of the species which the American boy most delights in catching with hook and line. The catfish is most conveniently taken after night, and the smouldering fire and small boy on the bank of a stream is a frequent picture of American country life. There are more than 100 genera of the catfish family and about 1000 species. Only about one-third of the species inhabit salt water. The North American fresh-water species are confined particularly to the Atlantic coast, the Mississippi valley, and the Gulf states. There are no native species of the catfish in the fresh waters of the Pacific coast. The blue catfish, known as the Mississippi catfish, is the most prominent species (Ictalurus furcatus). It is found particularly in the Mississippi river and its large tributaries. Sometimes it grows to an immense size, individuals having been found reaching 150 pounds in weight. If the stream in which the catfish lives runs north and south it will be found in the southern part of the stream in the winter and in the northern part in summer. This fish is highly prized for edible purposes. In the small streams the catfish is correspondingly small and weighs from less than one pound to two or three pounds only. The small catfish, especially in the small streams tributary to the Ohio and Mississippi, has edible properties which are far superior to the large catfish growing in the rivers themselves.

The catfish of the small streams and lakes are commonly known as bullheads, since the head is large and wide. The name of the most common or best known species is Ameirus nebulosus. This species is found from Maine westward and southward. In Pennsylvania it is known as the Schuylkill cat, and everywhere generally throughout the country as a small catfish.

Codfish.

—One of the most famous food fish of the American waters is the codfish. It is a widely distributed fish. There are said to be about 25 genera and 140 species. The codfish is particularly a fish of the northern waters. Only one genus is found in fresh-water lakes and streams.

The Common Cod.

—The common codfish (family Gadidæ) is the species Gadus callarias. It is rarely found south of the Virginia coast, but is especially abundant off the New England and Newfoundland coast. The great center of the codfish industry is in the vicinity of Newfoundland. Gloucester, Massachusetts, is the principal town devoted to the codfish industry in the United States. The cod is an omnivorous fish and especially fond of crustaceans, mollusks, and small fish. It also eats vegetation, and it is stated by Jordan and Evermann that all sorts of things have been found in cod stomachs, such as oil cans, finger rings, rubber dolls, rocks, pieces of clothing, etc. The livers of the cod, especially those of Norwegian origin, are extremely valuable, being the source of cod liver oil, which is considered by many to be the most valuable medicinal food known. Cod liver oil, while not palatable, is highly nutritious. The cod livers contain, according to some authorities, over 60 distinct chemical substances, many of which are highly important for their medicinal qualities. The cod move in schools, but not in such dense bodies as the mackerel, herring, and menhaden. Their movements are largely controlled by the temperature of the water and their desire for food. This species probably does not reach a greater length than 3 feet and a weight of more than 25 pounds. The average weight of the large-size cod in New England waters is about 15 pounds and on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland 20 pounds. The average weight of the small-size cod in these waters is about 12 pounds. It is one of the most prolific of fishes. The ovaries of a 21-pound cod were found to contain 2,700,000 eggs and of a 75-pound cod 9,100,000 eggs. The eggs are very small and require about 337,000 to make a quart. The cod is one of the most valuable of all fishes from a commercial point of view and also on account of international relations. On some occasions this country has apparently been on the verge of war with Great Britain respecting questions relating to the fisheries on the banks of Newfoundland. The U. S. Bureau of Fisheries has probably done more to propagate the cod than any other variety of fish. More than five hundred million cod fry have been liberated at different times by the Bureau and the number in one year has approximated 100,000,000. The color of the common cod is green or brown, but is subject to very great variations,—sometimes it is yellow or red and a variety of tints are assumed.

Composition.—

These data show that the flesh of cod fish is perhaps the most exclusively nitrogenous of any of the more abundant food fish. The quantity of fat contained therein is less than ¹⁄₄₀ of the total weight. The flesh of the fresh cod is more largely composed of water than that of the ordinary fish, containing approximately 83 percent of that substance. The flesh of the cod itself is an unbalanced ration, and needs to be eaten with butter and potatoes in order to make a complete ration. The hake, which is sometimes substituted for the cod without the knowledge of the purchaser, has very much the same chemical constituents, containing—

It is seen that there is very little difference in the chemical composition of these two fishes. This, however, does not justify the substitution of the hake for the cod, inasmuch as the hake is inferior in palatability to the cod.

Salted and Dried Cod.

—In the United States the cod is particularly devoted to the use of curing and salting, and in this cured state is even more highly valued, especially for the making of codfish balls, than it is in its fresh state. The old-fashioned method of salting and smoking produced a flesh of very high flavor, yielding under proper treatment in the kitchen a most delicious base for the fish ball. Under the modern system of quick curing, the salting and smoking have largely disappeared and the fish are cured in brine, and with the help of borax a product is produced which is less palatable than the old-fashioned cured fish.

Composition of dry Salted and Dried Cod.—

These data show that more than half of the weight in the water-free state is composed of salt. The codfish is also put up as boned fish in which nothing but the flesh is found, as desiccated cod, as shredded codfish and in various other forms.

Average Composition of Codfish Balls.—

The difference between the composition of the fish balls and the average composition of fish is clearly brought out by the data recorded. In the average composition of fish the sum of the fat, ash, and protein is greater than the solids obtained by difference by 0.36 percent. In the codfish balls the sum of the ingredients mentioned is less than the solids by difference by 16.10 per cent. This is due to the added potato, salt, etc.

Average Composition of Shredded Codfish.—

Eels.

—The common eel is a fish which is extremely long in proportion to its size and gives the general appearance, to the uninitiated, of a snake. The resemblance of the eel to a snake in shape is probably one of the reasons why it is not more highly valued as a food. The eels, perhaps, are not to be considered as true fish. The common eel (Anguilla chrysypa) is widely distributed throughout most parts of the United States, especially the eastern part. It extends southward as far as the West Indies, and is found in more or less abundance on the Gulf coast. Although a salt-water fish, it differs from most other eels in its penchant for ascending fresh-water streams. It often goes to the very headwaters, especially in the rivers of the Atlantic coast and Mississippi valley. Eels are often found in lakes which seem to have had no communication with the sea, which shows that they are able to surmount barriers which seem impossible to cross. Jordan and Evermann claim that the eel is really a fresh-water fish and that its real home is in the fresh-water rivers and lakes, and that it runs down to salt water only at spawning time, thus showing a quality or characteristic exactly opposite to that of the salmon and shad, which are true salt-water fish and come into fresh waters for spawning. Eels, like the carp, are more or less scavengers, feeding upon all manner of refuse, especially dead fish. They are very destructive of other fish, especially of young shad and herring. When nets are placed for shad and herring and the fish are caught therein the eels often invade the net, and when it is drawn it is filled largely with the skeletons of the fish, the flesh of which has been removed by the eels. Eels have a high value as food fish, both on account of their nutritive value and their flavor. The average length of the eel is from 2 to 3 feet, though much larger examples are sometimes found.

Composition of the Eel.—

These data show that the eel is rather richer in fat than the majority of fish, although there are some that exceed it in this constituent.

Conger Eel.

—The conger eel belongs to the family Leptocephalidæ. It inhabits salt water only, is scaleless, and grows to much larger sizes than the common eel, sometimes as long as 7 or 8 feet. It is not used for food in the United States, but is to some extent in Europe and the West Indies. On the east coast of the United States they do not occur very frequently. Only a few species are known, and these are of small extent and have little food value.

Summer Flounder.

—This fish (Paralichthys dentatus) is quite abundant on the Atlantic coast, frequenting the coast from Cape Cod to the Carolinas. It reaches a length of from 2 to 3 feet and has a weight of about 15 pounds. It is caught very extensively off the New England coast. The principal fishing grounds are in the region of Block Island, Marthas Vineyard, and the eastern end of Long Island. There is another species known as the southern flounder (Paralichthys lethostigmus), which flourishes from Charleston southward, and is found along the entire Gulf coast. There is also another species on the Gulf coast called the Gulf flounder (Paralichthys albiguttus). There is also a wide flounder or common flatfish (Paralichthys americanus). It is found on the coast of Labrador and extends down to the Carolinas. It is especially abundant along the coast of southern New England. It is a small species, rarely being over 20 inches in length, the average length being from 12 to 15 inches, and weighs from 2 to 3 pounds. This species of flounder has been extensively propagated by the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, as many as 100,000,000 fry having been planted in one season.

Composition of Summer Flounder.—

The flesh of this fish is particularly rich in water and poor in fat.

Graylings.

—The graylings belong to a family very closely resembling the Salmonidæ. They occur chiefly in northern or Arctic waters. One species found in Michigan is known as the Michigan grayling. It is a fish that is not only distinguished on account of its food value but also on account of its graceful shape and pleasing appearance. Another species occurs in Montana, and has been distributed very largely by the Bureau of Fisheries. It is not a fish which is of any great economic importance.

The Haddock.

—This is a fish very nearly related to the cod, but it has a smaller mouth and differs in other essentials, particularly in its chemical constituents, from the cod. The haddock has a food value which is probably not inferior to that of the cod. It is one of our most abundant fishes, and by some consumers the flesh is preferred to that of the cod. The usual weight of the haddock is about 3 or 4 pounds. It is, therefore, a much smaller fish than the cod. The species is Melanogrammus æglefinus. On the Atlantic coast it does not occur north of the Straits of Belle Isle. The haddock is particularly abundant on the Massachusetts coast in summer. Like the cod, the haddock is well suited for salting, smoking, and curing in various ways. It, however, has not been used to such an extent as the cod for those purposes, finding a more ready market in the fresh state.

Composition.—

In the dry substance.

The flesh of the haddock, it is seen, is even more exclusively nitrogenous than that of the cod. The two species resemble each other very closely in composition.

The Hake.

—There are several species of hakes, family Merluccidæ. The common European hake is the species Merluccius merluccius. The hake which is found mostly in American waters is Merluccius productus, and occurs very abundantly on the Pacific coast and is largely eaten as food. The flesh, however, is rather coarse and not very palatable. Another species which is found on our Atlantic coast from New England northward is Merluccius bilinearis.

Halibut.

—The halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus) is a fish which is highly esteemed and occurs in great quantities. It is a fish which frequents northern waters, and especially the North Atlantic on the American coast. It has not been taken south of Montauk Point, but extends as far north as the coast of Greenland, and is also found about Iceland and Spitzbergen in a latitude of 80 degrees. It does not like water above 45 degrees F., and is often found in water at the freezing point, namely, 32 degrees. The halibut is also found on the Pacific coast, especially off Oregon and Washington and in British Columbia and Alaska. It is one of the largest of food fish. The fish weighing about 80 pounds are considered the best for food, although the halibut sometimes reaches a weight of over 500 pounds. The male is always smaller than the female and less palatable. The annual value of the halibut fisheries on the North Atlantic coast is probably ³⁄₄ million dollars. It is probably slightly more than this on the Pacific coast,—in fact the Pacific coast fisheries have grown so extensively that halibut is shipped eastward across the continent. Vast freight trains known as the “Halibut Express” have been sent across the continent from Vancouver to Boston, making the trip in six or seven days.

Composition.—

The halibut is a fish containing considerable quantities of fat, and is not so peculiarly nitrogenous in its character as the cod or the haddock. It, therefore, makes a better balanced ration than either of the other fish. The halibut in the fresh state is esteemed fully as highly as the cod, and the halibut steak is a very common part of the fish sold upon the market.

Herring.

—The herrings form a very important group of fishes belonging to the family Clupeidæ. There are about 30 genera in the family and 150 species. The herrings are essentially salt-water fishes and are usually found in large schools. Many species, and some of these the most valuable for food, ascend fresh-water streams for spawning. Certain species, for instance, are caught at the same season as the shad in the Chesapeake and Susquehanna. There are a few species which remain permanently in fresh water. The common herring (Clupea harengus) is one of the most important of the food fishes of the whole Atlantic coast, and really over almost all the north Atlantic, throughout which it is generally distributed. The principal herring fisheries are in the North Sea, in Denmark and Norway. Important fisheries are also found off the coast of Great Britain, Belgium, France, and the United States. It is estimated that as many as three billion herring may be found in a shoal covering a dozen square miles. Herring shoals of much larger extent are on record. The herring do not frequent southern waters, but are found in the cool and more northern waters of the Atlantic. On the coast of the United States it has been found as far south as Cape Hatteras, though it does not occur very abundantly further south than New England. The fish at the period of spawning are considered the most valuable for food purposes.

The herring is either sold in a fresh state or it may be smoked, salted, or pickled, and in this condition is very extensively used as food. A species of herring is found on the Pacific coast known as California herring (Clupea pallasii). It does not differ very greatly in its general aspect from its relation on the Atlantic coast. This species occurs very abundantly in the region of Puget Sound, especially in summer time, and in southeast Alaska. They are extremely abundant in San Francisco markets in the spring time, so much so that it is difficult to find a sale for them.

The California herring are more highly valued and bring the highest price in the early winter, when they are the fattest.

Composition of Herring.—

The above data show that the flesh of herring is particularly rich in fat. In fact the herring is sometimes used as a source of oil. In southeast Alaska are extensive oil and guano works which utilize the herring for these purposes.

Horse Mackerel.

—Another species belonging to the mackerel family is the horse mackerel or tuna (Thunnus thynnus), which is found in considerable abundance on our North Atlantic coast and on the coast of southern California. Its common name is “tuna,” “tunny,” “horse mackerel,” or “great albacore.” The horse mackerel is a fish of very great size and is the very largest of the whole mackerel family. They occasionally attain a length of 10 feet or more and a weight of 1500 pounds. The average dimensions, of course, are very much less than this. The horse mackerel does not grow so large in Europe or upon the Pacific coast. In these regions a horse mackerel weighing 500 pounds is considered of an extraordinary size. The very large ones are never taken with hook and line, but there are records of fish of over 200 pounds that have been captured in this way.

The Hogfish.

—The hogfish of the West Indies and our southern coasts is another of the wrasse-fishes whose scientific name is Lachnolaimus maximus. It is called in Porto Rico “el capitan.” It often reaches a weight of 20 pounds and a length of from 2 to 3 feet. The name “hogfish” doubtless is derived from the shape of the head, which resembles somewhat that of the hog. It is valued as a food fish throughout the West Indies.

Lake Herring.

—The so-called lake herring is very closely related to the whitefish. The name of the species is Argyrosomus artedi. The lake herring has a large number of common names, of which the most widely applied is the term “Cisco.” The terms blueback, greenback, and grayback are also applied to these herring. The habitat of this fish is that of the whole region of the Great Lakes and north to Hudson Bay. It has much the same habitat as the whitefish. The average weight of the lake herring is about one pound. The subspecies (Argyrosomus artedi sisco) is found in Lake Tippecanoe and other small lakes in Wisconsin and northern Indiana.

Composition of Cisco.—

Mackerel.

—The mackerel is a food fish which is very commonly used in a cured state in the interior of the country and is eaten fresh on the sea coast. Its habitat is principally the North Atlantic ocean. On the coast of the United States it is found from Cape Hatteras north to the Strait of Belle Isle. In Europe it is found from Norway southward to the Mediterranean and Adriatic. The mackerel on the Atlantic coast usually appear first in the spring near Cape Hatteras and following the custom of the shad are found later farther north in the New England states and also in the British possessions. They leave the coast in the inverse order in the autumn, disappearing first in the northern regions and later in the southern portion.

The mackerel is one of the most abundant of fishes in the Atlantic Ocean, traveling in immense schools. There is record of a school which was seen in 1848 which was at least half a mile wide and 20 miles long. In some seasons the mackerel is extremely abundant and in others very scarce. The average catch is probably about 300,000 barrels. Boston and Gloucester are centers of the mackerel fishing industry. It is estimated that from 150 to 300 vessels of American bottoms are engaged in the mackerel industry. The U. S. Bureau of Fisheries has been particularly interested in the propagation of mackerel, but the result has not been as satisfactory as in the case of many other fishes. The young mackerel or small fishes are known as “spikes,” “blinkers,” and “tinkers.” When they are about two years old they measure from 5 to 9 inches in length. The mackerel attains its full size at about the fourth year. The scientific name of the common mackerel is Scomber scombrus Linnæus.

Composition of Mackerel.—Edible portion:

The above data show that the flesh of the mackerel is composed of about two-thirds protein and one-third fat and ash.

Pickled mackerel, salted mackerel, and smoked mackerel are perhaps as highly valued for food purposes as the fresh fish itself.

Menhaden.

—The menhaden is not used chiefly as a food fish but to some extent therefor. It is one of the most abundant fishes taken upon our Atlantic coast and is used almost exclusively as a source of oil, the residue being dried and ground for fertilizing purposes. In this sense it has great value because of the high nitrogen content of the residue and also of the considerable quantity of phosphoric acid which is contained therein.

The menhaden is known scientifically as Brevoortia tyrannus. Up to 1880 immense quantities of menhaden were taken off the Atlantic coast. Since that time the supply has not been considered so great. In the year 1877 it is stated by Jordan and Evermann that one oil company took 20 million fish and in one town alone, namely Booth Bay, 50 million fish were caught.

The fecundity of the menhaden is very great, exceeding that of the shad. More than 140,000 eggs have been taken from a single fish. The menhaden are not eaten very extensively in a fresh state as food but preserved in salt they have a considerable value for that purpose. An extract has also been made from the flesh of the menhaden on the same principle of manufacture as is utilized in preparation of meat extracts. The menhaden is known under a great number of common names, some thirty of which have been enumerated by Dr. Goode.

Composition of Menhaden.—

The water-free flesh contains (including bones) 21.7 percent of mineral matter.

Composition of the Mineral Matter.—

Mullet.

—The mullet belongs to the Mugilidæ, an important family of fishes in which there are several genera and species. The mullet is not particular about its food but is in the habit of swallowing large quantities of mud, or rather partially swallowing it and separating the refuse and most obnoxious particles by means of the gills. The common mullet or striped mullet (Mugil cephalus) is a widely distributed species. This fish is common along the Atlantic coast and in Hawaii, usually traveling in large schools, and is most abundant in the shallow waters of the coast. It sometimes reaches a length of two feet and is an important food fish. The mullet is very abundant on the Florida coasts. While the mullet may be regarded as a scavenger, living principally on mud, it does not eat any other species of fish, but is itself eaten by nearly all fishes that can gain access to it.

Composition of the Mullet.—

Muskallunge.

—A very noted member of this family is the muskallunge (Esox masquinongy). It is a native of the Great Lakes and is especially found in the upper St. Lawrence. It is not a very abundant fish, but is highly prized from the angler’s point of view. It is of very great size, having been found as long as 8 feet and weighing over 100 pounds. Two other species of muskallunge are known, one (Esox ohiensis or the Chautauqua muskallunge) in the Ohio river basin, particularly in Lake Chautauqua, where it has been artificially propagated with great success, and the unspotted muskallunge (Esox immaculatus), which occurs sparingly in certain small lakes of northern Wisconsin and Minnesota.

Composition of the Muskallunge.—

The flesh of the muskallunge, as is seen, contains about four times as much fat as that of the pickerel, and forms a ration which is not so unbalanced as that of the pickerel itself.

Pickerel or Pike.

—One species (Esox reticulatus) is of common occurrence along the Atlantic coast and also in the fresh-water streams of the southern interior portions of the country. The pike of the Great Lakes belongs to the species Esox lucius Linnæus. It is found in the fresh waters of North America, Europe, and Asia, but is not found on the Pacific coast except in Alaska. It reaches in some cases a large size, having been found as much as 4 feet in length and weighing 40 to 50 pounds. The Kankakee in northern Indiana is a well-known fishing ground for this species of pike.

Composition of Pickerel.—Edible portion:

The flesh of the pickerel, as is seen, is almost a pure type of protein. The fat falls to an insignificant quantity, being only about half as much as the ash.

Wall-eyed Pike.