Foods and Their Adulteration / Origin, Manufacture, and Composition of Food Products; Description of Common Adulterations, Food Standards, and National Food Laws and Regulations

—The wall-eyed pike or pike perch (Stizostedion vitreum) is a fish most abundant in Lake Champlain, the Great Lakes, and in eastern Canadian lakes; it occurs also in certain small lakes and streams in the upper Mississippi valley. In some localities it is known as the salmon or jack salmon, but of course these are misnomers.

Composition.—

Common Pompano.

—The pompano (family Carangidæ) is one of the food fishes which is most highly esteemed along the Gulf coast. It has been found as far north as Cape Cod on the Atlantic coast, but does not occur in sufficient numbers to make it of any economic value as a food fish north of Florida. It is taken chiefly in the Gulf waters. The average weight of the pompano is from 2 to 3 pounds, though very much larger examples are sometimes found. As a food fish there is none that is regarded more highly than the pompano, especially when it is eaten fresh from the water and prepared in the manner of the creole cooks of New Orleans.

Composition.—

These data show that the edible portion of the pompano is valued both for its protein and its fat. The latter exists in quantities of approximately one-third of the former. It is not so much its nutritive value which makes the pompano desirable as a food fish but the extreme delicacy of flavor and the richness of its taste. It does not bear shipping well, and therefore is found in its greatest perfection only near the place where it is taken.

In New Orleans and in Florida the pompano is one of the principal food fishes furnished by the high-class hotels and restaurants to their guests.

Red Snapper.

—The red snapper (Lutianus aya) is the most noted fish of all the snapper family (Lutianidæ), although there are others which are highly prized, such as the gray snapper. It sometimes reaches a length of two or three feet and a weight of from 10 to 35 pounds. It is particularly abundant in the deep waters of the Gulf of Mexico and off the west coast of Florida. The red snapper bears shipping better than most of the Gulf fish, and Pensacola is one of the principal points where the fish are packed in ice as soon as possible after capture and dispatched to northern markets.

Composition.—

This is another one of the fishes in which the edible portion is almost exclusively protein, the fat appearing only in small quantities.

Rock Bass; Redeye; Goggle-eye (Ambloplites rupestris).

—The rock bass is a very common fish particularly abundant in the fresh waters of the northern central portions of the United States. It is the fish which the American boy, living near small streams, most delights to catch. The size of the rock bass varies largely according to the magnitude of the body of water in which it lives. The average weight of the fish in streams of ordinary size is probably about a pound, though often it is considerably more. The rock bass has been propagated to some extent by the Bureau of Fisheries and has been introduced into waters where it formerly did not occur.

Salmon.

—The salmon is one of the most important food fishes of the United States. It belongs to the genus Oncorhynchus. The five species of this genus are, in America, confined to our Pacific coast. Of these species the one known as blueback or sockeye is found most abundantly in the Fraser and Columbia rivers and in Alaska, the silver salmon in Puget Sound, the chinook salmon in the Columbia, and the dog salmon along the coast from California to Bering Sea. The salmon begin running early in the spring and the early run is considered of greater value than the later. The habits of the salmon in the deep waters of the ocean are not very well known. It is only when they come into fresh water for spawning purposes that their life history can be well studied. It is believed, however, that they do not go very far from the shore. The run of salmon on the Pacific coast usually begins about the latter part of March and lasts through the spring and greater part of the summer. On account of the great abundance of these fish on the Pacific coast and the distance from large markets the canning industry has developed with great rapidity. In fact on the Pacific coast the product of salmon fishing is devoted almost exclusively to canning purposes. In the canning of salmon no particular care is taken, and perhaps none at all to designate upon the can whether its contents are of the early salmon or the later, less valuable run. It is claimed by many authorities that the salmon of the Pacific coast of America, taken all together in their relation to the economic problem of fish food, are the most important and valuable fish in the world.

Composition of a Pacific Coast Species.—

Composition of Atlantic Salmon.—

The above data show that the Pacific salmon are richer in fat than the Atlantic salmon. In fact in the edible portion of the fish the fat is almost as great as the protein.

Another species of Pacific salmon is the humpback salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha), which appears in great abundance in the rivers of Alaska, but not every year,—usually coming in larger quantities in alternating years. As a fish to be eaten fresh, this is one of the very best of the salmons. Owing to the pale color of the flesh, this species does not hold as high a rank for canning purposes. It cans well, however, and the product is very palatable and doubtless very nutritious. The trade-name of the canned product is “pink salmon,” as its flesh is of a paler color than that of the chinook salmon or red salmon. Another species is known as dog salmon. It is found in considerable abundance from California northward to Bering Strait, spawning usually late in the fall. It is considered as the least valuable for food purposes, although it is now coming to be used very extensively by freezing, in which form it finds a ready market both in this country and abroad. When canned it is put on the market as “chum.” Its chief interest at the present time is on account of the fact that it is sometimes sold under the names of better species.

Chinook Salmon (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha).

—This species is also known as quinnat, king, Columbia river, and Sacramento river salmon. It is, next to the sockeye, the most important of all salmon in commercial value. The individuals of this species reach a larger size than those of any other. They have been known to weigh 90 pounds, and fish of from 40 to 60 pounds in weight are not infrequently taken. The average weight of the king salmon which are captured in the Columbia river is probably not far from 22 pounds, while those that run further south, for instance in the Sacramento river, average 16 pounds.

Another species, known as silver salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch), also has a number of other names, mostly of Eastern or Russian origin. It is quite an important member of the genus and its average weight is about 5 pounds. It is very valuable as a food fish, only the Chinook and blueback salmon going ahead of it. It is also a species which bears shipment in a fresh state very well. The silver salmon resembles very closely the Chinook, but is easily distinguished therefrom by experienced fishermen. The canned product of this species is usually put on the market as “medium red” or “coho” salmon, names which have now come to have a definite meaning and are perfectly understood by the trade.

The Sockeye or Blueback Salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka).

—This is the species which has the greatest commercial value and forms a large part of the catch of the Pacific coast. It is the most abundant of all the species of salmon in Alaska. Its flesh has a rich red or “salmon” color, and lends itself admirably to canning processes. In palatability and attractiveness as a canned product it is not inferior to any, unless, possibly, the Columbia river chinook.

Canning of Salmon.

—The canning of salmon is one of the most important of the fish industries of the United States. The immense coast line possessed by the United States on the west, which is so vastly extended by the Alaskan coast and Aleutian Islands, affords the most extensive fisheries of salmon in the world. As has already been stated, there are no large markets in that region in which the fresh salmon can find a purchaser. The fish, therefore, must be neglected as a food product or else prepared in some way to enable them to be shipped to great distances. Probably the most unobjectionable way is by canning. The principles of the canning of salmon are not different at all from those which underlie the sterilization of any kind of food. The establishments in which the canning takes place are perhaps the most extensive in the world. The prime necessity in these cases is to secure complete sterilization. In the case of fish any failure to secure the proper sterilization is the more reprehensible, because fish decompose so readily, forming fermentative products which are extremely poisonous. Cases of poisoning from eating canned salmon have been reported, and in some cases they may prove fatal. Every can of salmon which is to be eaten ought to be examined carefully in order to see if there are any incipient signs of decomposition. A bad smelling or otherwise imperfect can should be rejected without question. Only the fish which is perfectly fresh to the taste and odor and which gives no signs of any kind of deterioration should be eaten. When properly prepared, canned salmon affords a delicacy as well as a food product which can hardly be too highly prized.

Composition of Canned Salmon.

—Mean of three samples. Water-free substance:

The Salmon of the Atlantic Coast.

—As has already been noted, the Pacific salmon belong to a different genus from the common Atlantic salmon,—Salmo salar. There is a very close resemblance between the two genera, and the common name “salmon” is applied to the individuals of each. The Atlantic salmon is a fish which has been known from the earliest time. The Roman people became acquainted with it in the early history of the Republic, and especially when they conquered Gaul and Britain. It is found distributed over the whole North Atlantic coast, but especially the northern portion from Massachusetts northward. The salmon extends, as far as observations have been made, beyond even the Arctic circle, and the same species is found upon the western and northern shores of Europe. The salmon enters the St. Lawrence and has been found as far up as Niagara Falls. Our principal fisheries for this species are in Maine and in Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. They do not extend southward beyond the Delaware and have rarely been found in that river. The shad and salmon were particularly abundant in early colonial days. The shad were so abundant that they were not regarded as useful for food purposes, but their value as a fertilizer was taught to the whites by the Indians. Salmon, apparently, were equally abundant, and it was considered an affront to offer salmon more than twice a week even to servants. In this respect they were on the same plane as the diamond back terrapin and canvas back duck, which were so abundant, in those days, that they were a drug on the market. The salmon enters the fresh-water streams for the purpose of spawning. The eggs are largely laid late in the fall, and in that case do not hatch until the next spring. The Atlantic salmon often reach a very large size. Individuals have been known to weigh from 40 to even 80 pounds. The average weight of the salmon taken in Maine waters is about 10 pounds each. Another valued specimen of salmon is known as the Sebago salmon (Salmo sebago), from the lake in which it occurs. It is a fresh-water fish, having been doubtless landlocked in some way after originally entering from the sea. Still a third species is the famous ouananiche (Salmo ouananiche), inhabiting the waters of the Lake St. John region north of Quebec.

Composition of Atlantic Salmon.—

Composition of Sebago Salmon.—

The above data show a striking difference in the composition of the edible portions of Pacific and Atlantic salmon. This difference is shown chiefly in the relative proportion of fat. In the Pacific salmon the fat approaches in quantity the protein, while in the Atlantic salmon the protein is much greater than the fat. The Atlantic salmon is used chiefly in the fresh state for two reasons, first, because the catch is very much smaller than that of the Pacific species while the markets are very much more numerous and very much larger; second, because it is commercially more profitable to dealers in the fresh state. In Europe and Scotland the salmon is constantly used in a fresh state during the whole of the summer and a dinner is scarcely considered complete without it. It is also very commonly used at luncheon. It is generally eaten cold and offers a food product of high palatability and great nutritive value in so far as the protein is concerned. Eaten with plenty of potato, as it usually is, it forms a reasonably well-balanced ration. The American visitor who is not used to eating salmon every day is likely to find its constant occurrence upon the English table in the summer to be a bit trying to his taste.

Sardines.

—The sardine belongs to the herring family—in fact small herring along the coast of Maine are put up as sardines. The sardines are very closely related to the herrings, but there are rather important differences. The European sardine, which is known as the sardine, is the Sardinia pilcharda, and does not occur on the coast of the United States. The species existing on the Pacific coast is known as the California sardine (Sardinia cærulea). It is quite abundant on the California coast and spawns in the open sea. It resembles very strongly the European sardine, but has no teeth. The Spanish sardine (Sardinia pseudohispanica) is found rather abundantly in Cuba and is often carried northward in the Gulf Stream as far as Woods Hole or Cape Cod. It is about 8 inches in length and of high food value, resembling very closely the European sardine. There has been a good deal of discussion as to whether or not small herring which are packed as sardines in the United States should be allowed, under the food laws of the various states and of the United States, to be sold by that name. The answer to this is that any deception in the label should be avoided. The herring, however, belongs to the same genus as the true sardine, and, differing from it only in the variation of species, may have some right to the name. The true ethical principles of trade, however, would require that they should be named Maine sardines or herring sardines and not bear the name simply sardines, which is reserved exclusively for the species Sardinia pilcharda.

Composition of Canned Sardines.—

The above data are based upon the analysis of the sample after the oil has been separated by drainage.

European Sardines.

—The sardine is eaten fresh along the Spanish and French coast, where they are taken in great abundance and form a delicious food in this condition. The number which is given to a single individual is quite generous, as the writer has had served him on the Mediterranean coast in Spain as many as twenty fresh sardines at one order. The number, however, was not found any too large when the palatability of the product is taken into consideration. Sardines are preserved by salt and smoke and particularly by packing in oil.

Method of Packing in Oil.

—The sardines after proper cleaning are heated in oil for the purpose of sterilizing them. Olive oil is usually employed for this purpose, though some packers prefer to heat the fish in peanut oil, claiming that it gives them a better color. There seems to be, however, no sufficient ground for this claim. The peanut oil is probably used simply because it is cheaper. When the fish are thus sterilized and thoroughly cooked they are placed in boxes in the well known manner in which they are found and covered with oil, sealed, and, if necessary, again sterilized in order to prevent decomposition. Olive oil is the oil usually employed for packing purposes, though cheaper grades of edible oil are very commonly found in sardines. The substitutes for olive oils which are usually employed are peanut oil, cottonseed oil, and sesame oil, either single or mixed. When the sardines have been previously boiled in a cheaper oil and then packed with olive oil the olive oil will be contaminated with the cheaper oil used in the boiling.

Adulteration of Sardines.

—As indicated above, the chief adulteration of sardines is in the misbranding respecting the nature of the fish and the oil used in packing. A young herring packed in the manner of a sardine properly demands a special label instead of the word “sardine” alone. A difference respecting the misbranding in regard to the oil employed is avoided by the statement on the package of the character of the oil used. The phrase “Sardines packed in oil” should be construed always to mean in the highest grade oil, that is, olive oil. This phrase, however, is usually employed when inferior oils are used. Inasmuch as oil is not the name of any individual product but of a large class of products, including that of both animal and vegetable origin, it is generally held that the term “oil” is not a sufficient indication of the character of the oil used. In all cases the packages should designate the special kind of oil used in the preparation. The addition of chemical preservatives to sardines in so far as the author knows, is not practiced, at least not to any appreciable extent.

The French Fisheries.

—The sardine fisheries in France are mostly off the coast of Brittany, and are subject to many very serious fluctuations. For instance, the present year, 1906, has been one of disaster to the French fisheries. What is the cause of the disappearance of the pilchard (the true sardine) is not known. The fishermen think that large fish have driven the small ones either into the Bay of Biscay or the Mediterranean, or even to the west shores of Africa. The fish are thought to originate in the Mediterranean, and their name is derived from the fact that they were originally found in great quantities off the coast of Sardinia. When the spring comes and the fine weather is established they migrate first along the coast of Spain, finally reaching the French coast some time during the month of May. By this time the young fish are nearly grown to a proper size for catching. The fishing, however, does not really begin until July and is usually finished by November. The little town of Concarneau is the seat of these fisheries. About two thousand small boats go out from this town and at or near this place are also the large canneries and packing establishments. The fishing grounds are about five miles from the coast and the small boats sail out from two to four o’clock in the morning. The fishing is by means of nets and a very important part of the work is the spreading of the bait upon the surface of the water to attract the fish. The principal bait or roque is the roe of the cod, which sometimes reaches a price of $60 per barrel. Sometimes a single boat will use from 30 to 40 barrels of bait. Only the most skilled fisherman, usually the master himself, is allowed to distribute this precious material. As many as one hundred thousand fish have been caught in the net, though this magnitude of catch is, of course, exceptional. When the fish are brought ashore they are counted into baskets, about 200 to a basket, and those unfit for use are thrown out. They are taken to the canneries as quickly as possible to be cleaned, boiled, dipped in oil, and then hermetically sealed into a tin in which they are sent into commerce.

Adulteration.

—The chief adulteration of sardines is found in misbranding as to country of origin. The French catch has the highest reputation of any in the world and for this reason the label is often made to represent the fish as of French origin when in reality they are caught on the shores of Spain or of other countries. Formerly the fish were brought in great numbers from the Spanish coast into France. They were naturally much deteriorated in transit. Nevertheless they were tinned and marked as of pure French origin. This practice has now been forbidden by law in France. The Norwegian fish known as Sprötten (sprats) on the German and Holland coasts are packed as sardines and sent into this country as sardines.

Scup.

—The scup is a fish (family Sparidæ) which is taken in great abundance on our Atlantic coast in the summer and autumn and is brought in immense quantities to the market. The proper name of the fish is Stenotomus chrysops.

Composition.—

The flesh of this fish is a better balanced ration than that of the red snapper, the proportion of fat being much larger.

Shad.

—One of the most important food fishes on the Atlantic coast is the shad. It is found along the whole Atlantic coast, coming into fresh water for spawning, where it is caught for food purposes. The shad begin to appear in the streams of the south Atlantic coast early in the winter and as the spring advances they go northward. They appear in the Potomac in April and May, and later in the Delaware and Connecticut rivers and other fresh-water streams further north. The fish is, therefore, to be had fresh upon the market over a long period of time. The common shad is known scientifically as Alosa sapidissima (Wilson). As a result of the work of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries the shad has been introduced into the waters of the Pacific coast where none was found originally. The shad fry were first introduced into the Sacramento river and afterward into the Columbia river. The environments on the Pacific coast were found congenial. The fish soon found grounds on which they could spawn, and they have spread over almost the entire length of the Pacific coast. It has, of late, become a very common and abundant food fish on the Pacific coast and has lost none of its palatability by transplanting. Science has not been able to ascertain anything of very great interest respecting the life of the shad in the sea. When they leave the rivers they practically disappear, and are not known again until the next spawning season returns. For spawning purposes the shad prefer a water temperature of from 55 to 65 degrees. Whenever the temperature goes above the latter figure they begin to disappear. The males and females go in separate schools. The males usually precede the females. It is stated by Jordan and Evermann that of 61,000 shad received at the Washington market from March 19 to 24, 99 percent were male. As the season advanced the males became very much less frequent and at the end extremely scarce. The U. S. Bureau of Fisheries has taken especial pains to increase the number of shad in all waters. During the spring of 1900 there were artificially planted in the Atlantic coast streams over 240,000,000 young shad. One fish often contains as many as 150,000 eggs. The average number, however, is about 30,000. Shad roe is the most valuable part of the fish and brings a much higher price in the market than an equal weight of fish itself. Planked shad is one of the greatest delicacies of the Washington markets. At Marshall Hall, opposite Mount Vernon, there are given a great many shad bakes during the season. Oak wood is placed in long lines and burned,—oak planks are set up on each side of the line of burning wood, inclined at an angle of about 60 or 70 degrees. On these oak planks the shad are cooked, held usually by driving a nail through the head,—the cut surface being exposed to the heat of the burning fire. In addition to being cooked in this way the fish absorbs a small amount of the empyreumatic odors of the burning wood. During the baking the shad are treated from time to time with melted butter. There is no other way which a shad can be cooked which renders it so delicious as by this primitive method. The shad, from an economic point of view, is third in importance in the United States, only the salmon and the cod exceeding it in value. The annual catch of shad on the Atlantic sea coast numbers from 10 to 20 million, weighing from 40 to 60 million pounds and worth from one and one-half to two million dollars.

Composition of Shad.—

Of the whole weight of shad the average edible portion amounts to 52.35 percent, and the refuse, counting the bones, skin, and entrails is 47.65 percent.

Shad Roe.

—The eggs of shad, as has already been mentioned, are regarded as the most valuable portion of the fish. Roe shad also are more highly prized as a food fish than the male shad. As a result, roe shad sell for a much higher price on the market than the male shad. The eggs are quite small, and as has already been said, occur in immense numbers, the average number to a fish being about 30,000.

Composition of Shad Roe.—

Aside from the water of the roe, it is noticed that by far the most abundant component is the protein. This, of course, is what would be expected of an egg product. The protein is a little more than six times as great as the fat. The ash contains large quantities of phosphorus, which exists in the original egg, largely in the form of lecithin, in which state it is regarded as most valuable for nourishing the phosphatic tissues of the body. Shad roe is eaten almost entirely in the fresh state. It does not produce a pickled or cooked product of anything like the value of the sturgeon eggs. So far as the author knows no form of shad egg preparation similar to caviar is on the market.

There are three species of shad in America, but the only one of great importance is the common Atlantic shad which has been described.

The Sheepshead.

—This abundant and important food fish exists in large numbers along the Atlantic coast. It also belongs to the Sparidæ and its scientific name is Archosargus probatocephalus. This species is found from Cape Cod to Texas. It is especially found in the vicinity of oyster beds, where it is destructive to the oysters. It is quite abundant in the Indian river, being, next to the mullet, the most frequently found fish in those waters. Though strictly a salt-water fish, it often runs up into fresh waters. The fish is distinguished by the number of broad silvery colored bands extending around its entire body. The average weight of the sheepshead is three or four pounds, though occasionally a fish three or four times that size is captured.

Composition of Sheepshead.—

The Smelt.

—The smelt belongs to a family which has a number of species, some of which are very abundant in Europe, where they are highly prized even to a greater extent than in this country for food. The smelt is a small fish, very long in proportion to its breadth. The American smelt (Osmerus mordax) is found very abundantly on the Atlantic coast north of New York. Although a sea fish, it often enters rivers and becomes landlocked in lakes. It is found abundantly in Lakes Champlain and Memphremagog and many of the New England and Nova Scotian lakes. The smelt in early times was a very abundant fish.

Composition of the Smelt.

—Edible portion:

These data show that the flesh of the smelt is very rich in protein, the fat falling to a very small proportion of the total edible substance.

Spanish Mackerel.

—This is a very highly prized fish and is eaten largely in the fresh state along the Atlantic coast. Its scientific name is Scomberomorus maculatus. The catch is subject to great variations. In early years the Spanish mackerel was scarcely known on our coast, but in the last forty years it has assumed considerable importance. Although more abundant than formerly it still commands a very high price. The weight of the full-grown mackerel is usually from five to eight pounds, though occasionally very large individuals are taken. Jordan and Evermann speak of one which was 41 inches long and weighed 25 pounds.

Composition.

—Edible portion:

In this fish it is seen that the fat is a little less than one-third the quantity of the protein.

Sturgeon.

—The sturgeon belongs to the family of Acipenseridæ. They are large fishes frequenting the sea and also the fresh waters of northern regions. Most of the species are anadromous, entering fresh water and ascending the streams in spring. There are two genera belonging to this family and 20 species that are well defined, although about 100 nominal species have been described. The white sturgeon or Oregon sturgeon is found on the Pacific coast from Monterey north to Alaska. It ascends the large rivers during the spring, notably the Sacramento, Columbia, and Fraser rivers. Some of them are very large and their value for food and commercial purposes has only been lately recognized. They are principally valuable, however, for their eggs or roe, since it is from the eggs of sturgeon that caviar is made. The roe in the fresh state is worth from 25 to 30 cents a pound. The fresh fish are frozen and shipped to Eastern markets.

The common sturgeon (Acipenser sturio) frequents the east and north Atlantic coast and ascends the rivers in the spring, especially the Delaware. The quantity of sturgeon taken, however, has constantly decreased for several years. The principal part of the caviar made in the United States is procured from the common sturgeon and the Lake sturgeon, which is found in the Great Lakes, the upper Mississippi Valley, and the Lake of the Woods.

Preparation of Caviar.

—After the eggs have been removed from the fish, they are placed in large masses upon a stand, the top of which is formed of a small-meshed screen. On the under side is placed a zinc-lined trough, about 18 inches deep, 2 feet wide and 4 feet long. The operator gently rubs the mass of eggs back and forth over the screen, whose mesh is just large enough to let the eggs drop through as they are separated from the enveloping membrane. They thus fall into the trough from which they are drawn off into tubs through a sliding door in one end of the trough. After all the roe has been separated, the tub is removed and a certain proportion of the best Luneberg salt is added and mixed with the eggs by careful stirring with the hands. This is the most delicate part of the whole process, and the best results can be obtained by that proficiency which comes from long experience. After adding the salt, the eggs at first become dry, but in 10 or 15 minutes the salt has drawn from the eggs their watery constituents and a copious brine is formed, which is poured off when the tub becomes too full. The salted eggs are then poured into fine-meshed sieves which hold about 10 pounds each, where they are allowed to drain for 8 to 20 hours. The eggs have now become the caviar of commerce, which is put in casks or cans of various sizes.

Composition of the Flesh of Sturgeon.—

Composition of Caviar.—

Of the ash, 6.16 parts of the 7.26 present are common salt.

Composition of the Eggs of Fish.

—Attention has been called to the valuable food properties of the eggs of fishes. The roe of a number of fishes is celebrated both for flavor and food value. The two most important roes are those of the sturgeon, used in the manufacture of caviar, and the roe of shad, used principally in the fresh state.

Composition of Roe.

—The composition of shad roe, fresh sturgeon caviar, and pickled caviar is given in the following table:

The above data show a marked difference between the composition of shad roe and sturgeon roe, the latter being very much richer in fat and also containing a greater quantity of ash. The large quantity of ash in the pickled caviar is doubtless due to the common salt used in the curing. There is not a very great difference between the composition of the roe and that of the flesh of fish. The roe is essentially a nitrogenous food, also with a considerable quantity of fat and with a certain amount of mineral matter. It contains less water than the flesh of fish, and, therefore, pound for pound in the fresh state has a larger quantity of nutrients. Otherwise, for food purposes, there is but little difference. It is doubtless true, however, that the mineral matters of the roe are somewhat different from those of the flesh of fish in containing a larger quantity of organic phosphorus in the form of lecithin.

Striped Bass.

—The striped bass or rock (Roccus lineatus) is a fish of the family Serranidæ and quite common in the Potomac. It occurs commonly around the Atlantic coast. Its scientific name is Roccus lineatus. It is taken in all waters along the coast from the Carolinas to New England, and especially near the mouth of the Potomac and in Chesapeake Bay. It is a fairly common as well as one of the best food fishes at Washington and in many of the fish markets on the Atlantic coast.

Sole.

—The term “sole” is applied here to certain species of flounders and the two terms are sometimes used synonymously. The true soles, however, of which there are several species, belong to a distinct though closely related family. The species of flounder to which the term “sole” is generally given is Eopsetta jordani. It occurs along the Pacific coast from Monterey to Puget Sound. Large numbers are taken in Monterey Bay. The average weight of this “sole” is about three pounds. It is highly esteemed as a food fish. They are dried in great numbers by the Chinese, who suspend them by strings on a frame placed on the roofs of the houses, where, after they become dry, they strike against each other when moved by the wind, producing a sound which is something like that emanating from the leaves of a forest.

Tautog.

—The Tautoga onitis is one of the wrasse-fishes (family Labridæ) and is abundant along the Atlantic coast from New Brunswick to the Carolinas. East of New York it is commonly called the “tautog.” On the New York coast it is known as “blackfish,” and further south as the “oyster fish.”

Tilefish.

—The tilefish is interesting not because of its high food value but because of the fact that it was discovered by accident in 1879 when a fisherman off the coast of Nantucket captured 5000 pounds of a fish which was new to him. The species was also new to science. This fish disappeared as suddenly as it came and no more were caught until 1892. Since then they have been taken rather frequently. The tilefish reaches a length sometimes of three feet and a weight of 30 pounds. It is pronounced by experts to be the equal of the pompano.

Trout.

—Trout, of which there are many species, are greatly prized both on account of their value as game fishes, affording sport for anglers, and because of their high palatable qualities. They belong to the same family as the Atlantic salmon and often it is difficult to distinguish by any of its common characteristics a trout from a salmon. This is especially true of trout of western America. The species of trout which are most highly prized on the Pacific coast are the cut-throat trout (Salmo clarkii), the rainbow trout (Salmo iridens), and the steel-head (Salmo gairdneri). The familiar silver trout of Lake Tahoe is another closely related species. They are distinguished by a remarkable system of spots of a circular form, black in color, and of varying size. The Lake Tahoe trout which is commonly secured is not the same as the silver trout of Lake Tahoe but is of a little different character, and is also known as the Truckee Trout, “Pogy,” and “Snipe.” It reaches a weight of from three to six pounds and is sometimes served on the dining cars of the Central Pacific Railway, in running through Idaho and into California. Various other species of the trout are found in Utah, in the Rio Grande and the Colorado, and in the lakes of Colorado. Perhaps the most important of these is the steel-head trout occurring along the Pacific coast. The rainbow trout is also a fish that is highly prized along the Pacific coast. The brook trout of western Oregon is also an important fish.

The Trout of the Great Lakes.

—The fish known as trout in the Great Lakes belong to a different genus from those already mentioned, namely, genus Cristivomer. It has, however, the typical spots, which are of a grayish color instead of red or black like those of the other trout which have been mentioned.

The principal species which abounds in the Great Lakes is the Mackinaw trout (Cristivomer namaycush). It is also found in the large lakes from Maine westward to the Pacific ocean and even to northern Alaska. This is the largest species of trout. The average weight of the fish probably does not exceed 15 or 20 pounds. Individual examples have been found weighing over 100 pounds. There is only one common fish which exceeds it in weight, namely, the sturgeon. Next to the white fish it is the most important commercial fish of the Great Lakes. The supply of lake trout has been diminishing and the price increasing for several years. The spawning season of lake trout begins in September and continues until December.

Composition of Lake Trout.—

Composition of Brook Trout.—

The above data show that lake trout has a flesh which approximates in composition that of Pacific salmon, being quite rich in fat, while the brook trout has a composition more like the Atlantic salmon, being very rich in protein and poor in fat. Trout of all kinds are used practically in only a fresh state. The catch is not large enough to warrant the establishment of canning factories and all that are caught in the northern and central northern lakes and streams find a ready market in a fresh state at much more remunerative prices than could be obtained by canning. It is always a fortunate circumstance when the condition of the catch and of the market are such as to enable the fish to be eaten as fresh as possible from the water. Fish is a kind of food which is never improved by keeping in any way and is at its best the minute the fish is taken from the stream. The brook trout do not belong to the same genus as the lake trout but to the genus Salvelinus. They have a general resemblance, however, to that genus. As a fish to be caught by the hook and as a victim of sport the brook trout perhaps occupies the highest place among the fish of the country; especially is it sought for in the mountain streams, and it occurs in most parts of the northeastern United States. It extends from Maine to northern Georgia and Alabama, especially in the Appalachian Mountains and west through the Great Lakes to the Mississippi, while in Canada it is found from Labrador to the Saskatchewan.

The brook trout has been especially cultivated by the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries and introduced into waters in the United States where it is not found naturally. The season for spawning for the brook trout is in the autumn, when the water is growing colder, and continues from August to December, according to the latitude. In spawning time the fish come up into the smallest parts of the stream where shallow water can be found. The eggs remain until the next spring, when they are hatched. The brook trout varies greatly in size, according to the magnitude of the stream. In the small streams it weighs often less than ¹⁄₄ pound, while in large streams it weighs 2 or 3 pounds. The large trout has almost disappeared from the small streams as a result of the activity of fishermen.

There are many other species of trout which are known in different parts of the country. For instance, the Dublin Pond trout of Dublin Pond, N. H., the Dolly Varden trout in the northern Pacific states and Alaska, the Sunapee trout in the northeastern states, and the Blueback trout in Maine. These fishes all have practically the same quality, varying only in minute details, and have the same value as a food.

Turbot.

—A species of halibut known as Greenland halibut (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides) is also known as turbot in this country. It occurs chiefly off the coast of Greenland, and is taken in the very coldest part of the year. The European turbot is Psetta maxima.

Weakfish.

—The weakfish belongs to the croaker family (Sciænidæ) and has a high value as a food fish, the flesh being rich in flavor and very tender and easily disintegrated, from which quality it is believed the name “weakfish” is derived. The common weakfish is the species Cynoscion regalis. It is also known in some localities as the squeteague. The fish is rather long in proportion to its breadth and sometimes grows to a large size. Examples weighing over 25 pounds have been captured. Very rarely, however, does a weakfish weigh more than 10 pounds, and the average is perhaps not more than one-half that. The weakfish is, particularly when young, a victim of the bluefish, and great numbers succumb to the ravages of its more powerful enemy. The weakfish is found over the entire length of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts as far north as the Bay of Fundy. The weakfish sometimes ascends the tidal waters and congregates around the river mouths, where the food is more abundant. While found on the markets in the North, it is more highly prized in the southern markets.

Composition.—

The flesh of the weakfish, as shown by the above data, is one in which the protein exists in very much greater proportion than the fat. It is not so rich in protein, however, as some of the other species which have been mentioned.

Whitefish.

—This fish occurs in large numbers in all our Great Lakes, and is an abundant article of food. Its scientific name is Coregonus clupeiformis. It inhabits the whole of the Great Lakes regions from Lake Champlain to Lake Superior. It does not occur in very great abundance, if at all, west of Lake Superior, although it has been reported to have been found in the fresh water lakes both to the north and west of that region.

The common whitefish prefers the deep water of the lakes, coming only into shallow water near the shore at spawning time, which, in the Great Lakes, is from October to December. During the months of January, February, and March the fishing for whitefish is practically discontinued, since the fish at that time have returned to deep water and are not accessible.

The size of the whitefish in the Great Lakes is not so great as the extent of water would indicate. Probably three pounds would be an average size, although the individual fish range from 1¹⁄₂ to 6 pounds. The weight rarely, however, exceeds 4 or 5 pounds. Occasionally whitefish have been found weighing as high as 20 pounds, but this is very rare. The whitefish reaches its full average size about the end of the fourth year. The number of eggs which are found in the female fish is not so large as in the shad, but usually the number does not fall below 10,000 and sometimes reaches as high as 75,000. The eggs are very small comparatively, and about 36,000 of them make a quart. The U. S. Bureau of Fisheries has done a great deal to increase the supply of whitefish by planting millions of whitefish fry in suitable water.

Different Species of Whitefish.

—There are many species of whitefish besides the common whitefish which appear in the Great Lakes. Coulter’s whitefish is found in the waters of British Columbia, but it is not distributed very widely throughout the country. The Rocky Mountain whitefish is very widely distributed, occurring in all suitable waters from the west slope of the Rockies to the Pacific. There is also a subspecies of this fish occurring in the headwaters of the Missouri river. Menominee whitefish occur in the lakes of New England, New York, and the Great Lakes,—it is also known as round whitefish, frostfish, shadwaiter, pilotfish, chivey, and blackback.

Composition of Whitefish.—

Average Composition of Fish.[16]—