Foods and Their Adulteration / Origin, Manufacture, and Composition of Food Products; Description of Common Adulterations, Food Standards, and National Food Laws and Regulations

Canna edulis.

—This species of Cannaceæ also furnishes a starch of commerce nearly allied to the Canna indica. The common commercial name of this variety of starch is “Tous les mois.” The starch granules of this species are rather larger than those of the Canna indica, and the concentric markings are more delicate and regular.

Madagascar Arrowroot.

—There is also produced in Madagascar an arrowroot from a different form of plant, namely Tacca pinnatifida. It is not, however, of any very great commercial importance. A similar starch is made from the same plant in Otaheite.

Plantain Meal.

—The plants of the natural family Musaceæ are important articles of food in many tropical regions, the plant yielding also, in addition to the starch, fibers suitable for textile use. The fruit of the Musa paradisiaca is chiefly employed for this purpose. It is quite similar in its character to the fruit of the allied species, Musa sapientum, or common banana. The starch granules which make up the plantain meal are remarkable for their long and narrow shape. The lines marking their surface are only faintly distinguishable, and the hilum is small and somewhat indistinct. Plantain meal is not used to any very great extent outside of the country where it is produced.

Sago.

—Another form of starch which has a high value as a food product is made from the natural family Palmaceæ. The palm starch or sago is consumed in immense quantities in many parts of the world, and is probably in importance only second to the starch derived from the cereals as human food. The starch granules are rather large and coarse, although very many small granules are found mixed with them. Some of the larger granules appear to be partially divided or broken. The hilum is distinct and very long. The sago of commerce is like a tapioca made from the palm starch. It has been subjected to heat while still moist in the process of manufacture, so that it is quite difficult, as a rule, to find the distinct starch granules of the palm in the commercial article. Sago is grown principally in the Moluccas and Sumatra.

South African Arrowroot.

—There are many species of Marantaceæ cultivated in South Africa from which arrowroot is manufactured. They are of the same variety as that used in Bermuda and the West Indies. The cultivation of the plant has modified to some extent the action of the starch granules as originally found in the uncultivated plant. The starch granules in the cultivated variety approach more nearly a spherical form. The concentric lines are much more distinct and the hilum more prominent than in the wild variety.

Tapioca.

—The most important of the starch products used as food is the tapioca. It is made from the plant belonging to the natural family Euphorbiaceæ, and is derived particularly from the variety of cassava plant known as Manihot. Attention has been called to the fact that many of the varieties of cassava plant are highly poisonous, due to the natural development during growth of hydrocyanic acid, one of the most violent of known poisons. This substance, however, is of quite a volatile character, and when comminuted cassava root is heated or boiled, all or at least the principal part of the hydrocyanic acid (prussic acid) disappears. None of it or at least not more than a trace is found in the food product tapioca. A comparatively sweet variety of cassava that is containing but a small proportion of prussic acid is grown in Florida and Georgia. The appearance of a field of cassava is shown in Fig. 46. The tapioca of commerce is prepared by the separation of the starch in the usual way by grinding and washing with water. Before the starch becomes dry, in fact, while it is still containing its maximum degree of moisture, it is submitted to heat first at a low temperature, gradually increased until the starch granules are disintegrated or agglutinated into a somewhat firm and gelatinous mass. The heat is then continued at the proper temperature until the water is nearly all driven off. The starch from this plant is sometimes known as Brazilian arrowroot.

The starch granules of the bitter cassava are very small and often angular in shape, although some of them appear as well rounded spheroids. The hilum is, as a rule, clearly distinguished. The microscopic appearance of the grains of cassava starch is shown in Fig. 47.

Adulteration of Tapioca.

—The true tapioca should only be made from starch of the cassava. Any starch, derived from any source whatever, if taken in the moist state may be subjected to the same process of heating, and forms an imitation tapioca which possesses many of the physical and probably all of the edible properties of the genuine article. The substitution, however, of any of the other starches for that of the cassava is at least an imitation, if not an adulteration, of the genuine article.

Food Starches Derived from Cereals.

—The starches which are derived from the common cereals are also extensively used as food products, especially the maize starch in the United States. It is commonly sold as “corn” starch, and is largely used for the purpose already mentioned. It may be in its natural state or it may be previously submitted to the action of heat while still moist, so that it takes on the character of tapioca or sago. In the United States the Indian corn is practically the only cereal which furnishes the food starch in very large quantities, although rye starch is extensively used for this purpose in other countries.

The starches of certain of the legumes, such as peas and beans, have also been separated and used for food purposes. They are not, however, used to any such extent as would warrant any especial reference to them at this point.

Starch from the Peanut.

—The peanut also yields a starch which has sometimes been separated and used for food purposes. The quantity so employed, however, is of no consequence as far as magnitude of product is concerned.

Food Starch Derived from the Potato.

—Potato starch is also used very extensively for food purposes, either in its natural form or when subjected to heat while still moist, as in the preparation of tapioca and sago.

Adulteration of Starches.

—The most common adulteration of starches is rather a misbranding than adulteration. The practice of adding inert white powdered mineral matters to starches is practically unknown in this country. Starch sometimes contains sulfurous acid used as a bleach in its preparation. This is an injurious substance and should be excluded from edible starches. The naming of a starch of one kind by the name of another and more valuable kind is simple deception. It is practiced to some extent in this and other countries. Starch itself may be used as an adulterant, as when maize starch is mixed with wheat flour or powdered starch mixed with granulated sugar. This kind of adulteration is quite unknown in this country. The selling of cheaper starches for tapioca and sago is more common than it should be.

CONDIMENTS.

Condiments other than Sugar, Salt, Vinegar, and Wood Smoke.

—The principal condimental substances which are used for food are of vegetable origin and of a highly aromatic character. Condimental substances themselves may have food value, that is, contain digestible material which takes part in the metabolic processes. Their utility, however, and their value do not depend upon the amount of food which they contain, but upon their aromatic and condimental principles above mentioned. Condimental substances are used in a variety of ways, but in general it may be said that in an air-dried state they are reduced to a fine powder and employed in this way. Extracts may also be made from these condimental substances, either with water or usually with alcohol, and this extractable matter used as a condiment. The essential oils which they contain are also frequently separated by distillation, and in this purified and concentrated state are, after dilution with alcohol, used for condimental purposes. Peppermint oil is a type of this character of condiments.

It will be sufficient for the purpose of this manual to mention the principal condimental substances and refer for the character of their composition to the standards of purity established for them under authority of Congress in Appendix A.

Allspice

, also known as pimento, is the dried fruit of the Pimenta pimenta L.

Anise.

—The anise is a plant which grows from 14 to 16 inches in height. Its botanical name is Pimpinella Anisum L. French, anis; German, Anis; Italian, aniso; Spanish, anis.

The anise produces abundant seeds, which are the principal condimental part. The seeds are used either directly in bread and other foods or especially in the manufacture of liqueurs and confections. Anise seed is one of the oldest of condimental substances of which historical account has been preserved.

Bay leaf

 is the dried leaf of the Laurus nobilis L. In a powdered form it is used as a condimental substance in food, but it is chiefly employed in flavoring alcohol in the manufacture of the material known as bay rum.

Capers.

—The capers are obtained by drying the flower buds of the caper bush. The botanical name is Capparis spinosa L. French, caprier; German, Kapernstrauch; Italian, cappero; Spanish, alcaparra.

The caper is a plant which is a native of southern Europe of shrub-like proportions, growing to a height of from three to five feet. The flower buds are gathered when they are about as large as peas and are preserved by pickling in vinegar.

Caraway.

—This is a plant which is native to Europe, is either annual or biennial, and belongs to the botanical species Carum Carvi L. French, carvi; German, Feld-Kümmel; Italian, carvi; Spanish, alcaravea.

The seeds contain the aromatic principles which make the caraway valuable as a condiment. The plant often grows wild. The roots have some value as food and are also highly spiced, but are seldom eaten. The seeds are used very largely for flavoring bread, especially among the Germans. They are also used in certain varieties of cheese, especially that made in Holland. Often they are found in certain candies and other confections.

Cassia

 is that variety of cinnamon obtained from other species of cinnamon than Cinnamomum zeylanicum, and is not so highly valued for condimental and other purposes as the true cinnamon.

Cassia buds, which are often used for condimental purposes, are the dried immature fruit of any species of the cinnamomum plant. The cinnamon, as it is offered for condimental purposes, is usually finely ground, and the same is true of cassia.

Celery Seed.

—The seeds of celery are highly prized for condimental purposes, either directly or in the form of an extract. The seeds or their extracts are also often recommended for medicinal purposes.

Cinnamon.

—The cinnamon is the bark of various species of plants belonging to the genus Cinnamomum. The true cinnamon is derived solely from the bark of Cinnamomum zeylanicum Breyne.

Cloves.

—Cloves are dried buds of the Caryophyllus aromaticus L. They are used either in the original dried state or as a finely ground powder.

Coriander.

—The aromatic principles of coriander which is used for condimental purposes are the dried seeds of the Coriandrum sativum L. This is a plant which is indigenous to southern Europe, growing from two to two and a half feet high. The seeds are used in the manufacture of liqueurs and for seasoning a great number of culinary preparations. It is stated by some authorities that the leaves are used for condimental purposes, but this is not the case. The leaves as well as the other green parts of this plant have a very unpleasant odor from which the name of the plant is derived. This odor is of a character which would exclude the leaves from use for condimental purposes.

Cumin Seed.

—The cumin plant (Cuminum Cyminum L.) is thought to be indigenous to Egypt. It is an annual plant, sometimes growing from four to five inches high. The seeds are the aromatic part and are used for condimental purposes. They have a hot, acrid taste and a strong aromatic flavor. They are used chiefly for flavoring soups and in the manufacture of pastry of all kinds. They are also found in many kinds of liqueurs.

Dill.

—The dill plant (Anethum graveolens L.) is indigenous to southern Europe. It is an annual plant and grows from two to two and a half feet high. The seeds, which are the condimental part of the plant, are flat and have a strong and bitter flavor. They are used in this country principally for flavoring a kind of pickle known as the dill pickle.

Fennel.

—The fennel plant (Fœniculum fœniculum L.) is indigenous to southern Europe. It grows both wild and under cultivation. The common garden fennel is biennial in its habits. The seeds contain the condimental properties of the plant, and the seeds of the cultivated fennel are usually about twice as long as those of the wild variety. They are flat on one side and convex on the other and crossed by thick yellow-colored ribs. The seeds are used chiefly in the manufacture of liqueurs.

Ginger.

—The ginger is the root of the plant Zingiber zingiber L., and is one of the most highly prized of the condimental substances. It is a plant which naturally contains a large amount of starch, which forms nearly half of its weight in the dried state. The roots are often sent into commerce covered with lime, either for the purpose of preserving them or bleaching them. This is such a common condition that the limed ginger or bleached ginger is recognized as a legitimate article of commerce.

Mace.

—The mace of commerce is composed of the dried arillus of Myristica fragrans Honttyn. Mace contains a large quantity of fatty substance, usually not less than 20 nor more than 30 percent of its total weight. There are several varieties of mace on the market, the principal one being Macassar mace, which is obtained from the dried arillus of Myristica argentea Warb. The Bombay mace is derived from the dried arillus of Myristica malabarica.

Marjoram

 is the dried leaf of the plant known by the botanical name of Majorana majorana (L.) Karst. or Origanum vulgare L. This plant is a native of Europe and is a very common wild plant in France, especially on the borders of the forests. It is also extensively cultivated. It is a perennial. The leaves of the plant are the condimental portions. A plant known as mountain mint is frequently sold as marjoram and has some of its condimental properties.

Mustard.

—The mustard seed is derived from various species, distinguished largely by the color of the seeds. For instance, the white mustard is the seed of Sinapis alba L., the black mustard the seed of Brassica nigra (L.) Koch, and the black or brown mustard the seed of Brassica juncea (L.) Cosson. The mustard is a widely distributed plant probably indigenous to Europe. It grows extensively wild and is also largely cultivated. The mustard seed forms one of the most important condiments of commerce. The mustard is often ground before it is sold, and frequently it is mixed with other spices and with oils and is known as prepared mustard. This latter variety is subjected to all kinds of adulterations, frequently containing very little mustard but with enough turmeric to give the preparation a yellow color resembling that attributed to the pure article. Prepared mustard should be a thick paste composed largely of ground mustard seed together with salt, spices of different kinds, and vinegar. It may also be ground in oil.

Nutmeg.

—Nutmeg is the seed of Myristica fragrans. The seed is sent into commerce with a thin coating of lime, which, of course, must be removed before the nutmeg is used. It is principally used as the unground nut and by grating it into the food which is to be flavored at the time of use. The nut thus retains its flavor much better than when all ground at once and kept for some time. There are many varieties of nutmeg on the market, the principal ones being the Macassar, Papua, male, and long nutmegs. These are all the dried seeds of the Myristica argentea.

Pepper.

—Pepper is one of the most important of the principal aromatic condimental substances. There are many standard varieties which are known to the trade and which are derived from distinct botanical species. The principal varieties are black pepper, white pepper, and paprika pepper. Black pepper is the dried immature berry of Piper nigrum L. White pepper is the dried mature berry of Piper nigrum L. from which the outer and the inner coatings of the seed have been removed. Paprika pepper is a red pepper of very mild aromatic qualities grown chiefly in Hungary and in Spain.

Cayenne pepper is a very active aromatic red pepper which is the dried fruit of Capsicum frutescens L. or Capsicum baccatum L.

The red peppers, therefore, may be divided into two distinct classes, namely, cayenne or hot, acrid pepper and the paprika or mild-flavored pepper. There is another variety of pepper known on the market as long pepper which is the dried fruit of Piper longum L.

Saffron

 is the dried stigma of Crocus sativus L.

Sage

 is a common garden plant which is very extensively used for condimental purposes, belonging to the species Salvia officinalis L. Sage is used very extensively by the housewife in the preparation of domestic sausage, and is perhaps more commonly used in meat products of this description than in other foods.

Savory or summer savory

 is a preparation from the leaf, the blossom, and tender tips of the branches of Satureja hortensis L.

Sweet Basil.

—This plant is indigenous to India, growing usually about one foot high. The botanical name is Ocymum Basilicum L. French, basilic grand; German, Basilikum; Italian, basilico; Spanish, albaca.

The leaves of the plant are the aromatic part and are extensively used for condimental purposes of different kinds. There are many varieties of basil in use.

Thyme.

—Thyme is a plant indigenous to southern Europe and belongs to the botanical species Thymus vulgaris L. It is a perennial plant and grows in the form of a small dwarf shrub. The plant may be propagated either by cuttings or may be grown from the seed. The leaves and young shoots of the thyme may be used for condimental purposes. Some other species of the thyme are also used for condimental purposes, especially the varieties known as lemon thyme and mother-of-thyme.

Vegetable Flavoring Extracts.

—In speaking of condimental substances it was stated that they were either used directly in a state of fine subdivision for flavoring purposes or their extracts were employed. The use of the extract is often more convenient than the use of the powdered material, and, also, it secures a more even distribution of the flavoring principal throughout the food product. It is doubtful, however, if for really condimental purposes there is any advantage in the use of the extracted materials. Nevertheless there are many food products in which it would be inconvenient to use the powdered aromatic substance itself and the flavoring extract has become established as a legitimate article of a condimental nature.

All the common extracts used in foods are described in the standards of purity established by the Secretary of Agriculture by authority of Congress, and will be found in Appendix A.

FRUITS.

Definition.

—Under the term “fruit” is included the edible products of many trees and shrubs. The term “fruit” in its general sense can be applied to any kind of a food product, as for instance the fruit of the farm, the fields, and the forest, but in a restricted sense, as it will be used here, it is applied to the class of orchard products represented by apples, peaches, pears, etc. Fruits, in a general sense, include also that class of wild or cultivated edible bodies known as berries. The term “berry” is restricted in its present sense to the products of certain small shrubs or vines, such as gooseberries, blackberries, raspberries, etc. The fruits that grow upon small bushes, such as the currant and gooseberry, occupy an intermediate position between the orchard fruits which have been mentioned and berries. Orchard fruits are conveniently divided into large and small fruits, the large fruits being represented by the apple, pear, peach, quince, etc., and the small fruit by the cherry and plum. Fruits were doubtless among the earliest foods of man, and this leads to another classification of fruits, namely, wild and cultivated. Wild fruits, at the present time, do not include any large proportion of human foods. There are certain trees growing wild, such as the mulberry, the wild cherry, and others, which produce delicious fruits, usually of small size. The term “fruit” as used herein does not include that very valuable class of foods known as nuts, which is considered under a separate classification.

General Characteristics of Fruits.

—The general characteristics of fruits include their color, flavor, odor, and nutritive properties in so far as we are concerned with them in this manual. They are composed very largely of water, perhaps 80 percent or more. The solid matter consists of the usual cellulose structure of vegetable bodies, sugars, gums, organic acids, and mineral matters. Fruits are all succulent, that is, by reason of their high content of water, composed chiefly of matters in solution which constitute their juices. All fruits, therefore, when subjected to pressure yield a juice which contains the principal portion of their dietetic constituents. The study of the composition of the fruit juices would, therefore, naturally accompany a study of the fruits themselves. The chief characteristics of fruit from a dietetic point of view and also a palatable standpoint are their sugars and acids. The characteristic of taste depends on these two constituents principally. In addition to this, the fruits contain aromatic substances belonging to the class of essential oils and compound ethers which give to them the agreeable odor which adds so much to their value. Fruits are naturally colored and these colors, to which the eye is accustomed, become marks of distinction and excellence in many cases. The prevailing colors of fruits are red, yellow, and green. All shades of colors, however, are represented by the mingling of the primary tints. Certain colors are associated with certain fruits as, for instance, red with the cherry, raspberry, etc., green, red, and yellow with apples, and shades of red and yellow with peaches. These colors are due to the different conditions of the chlorophyll or vegetable coloring matter which the skin of the fruit contains. The three principal color tints which are produced are known as chlorophyll, green, xanthophyll, yellow, and erythrophyll, red. The mingling of these three distinct colors in the plant coloring matter forms the various tints which are seen in fruits and which render them so attractive to the eye.

The sugars in fruit include both the common sugar (sucrose) and invert sugar, which contains equal quantities of dextrose and levulose. As the sugar is more or less abundant in proportion to the other ingredients the fruit is more or less sweet. The different fruits contain different quantities of sugar,—the richest perhaps is the grape which often in a state of complete maturity may have from 25 to 30 percent of sugar. Apples contain from five to 15 percent of sugar, and peaches and pears somewhat less. In fact this range in sugar will cover nearly all the fruits, large and small, as well as most of the berries. The quantity of sugar contained in each of the fruits will be especially noted in treating of them individually. One of the most important constituents of fruit from a palatable point of view is found in its organic acids. These vary in different classes of fruits. The most common organic acid in fruit is malic, which is the chief acid in the apple and allied forms. In citrus fruits, such as the lemon and orange, citric acid is the principal organic acid. In grapes the principal organic acid is tartaric. More than one of these acids is, however, usually contained in a single fruit, and other organic acids than those named are found in small quantities in various fruits. The three mentioned may be regarded as the typical acids in fruits. These acids, if prepared chemically and administered in a pure state, have practically no food value at all, and cannot be considered as wholesome material to place in the stomach. When, however, they are eaten in their natural state in combination with the potash and other bases which fruits contain, and mingled, as Nature has done, with the other constituents, they add not only to the palatability but also to the wholesomeness of the product. This is only another illustration of the fact that natural products are often wholesome and desirable where artificial products of the same kind chemically are hurtful and undesirable. Many fruits contain considerable quantities of a carbohydrate allied to some extent in its composition to sugar and starch but which has the property of setting to a semi-resilient mass known as jelly. This constituent in fruit is known as pectin or pectose and is present in greater or less quantities in almost all fruits. It is by the utilization of this component of fruit that the jellies which are so common an article of food are prepared. While in its physical properties the jelly of fruits has some resemblance to the gelatine or jelly of animals, its chemical composition and nutritive values are entirely different. The gelatine or jelly of animals is essentially a nitrogenous product while the pectin or jelly of fruit is essentially a carbohydrate product. The two, therefore, are not to be confounded.

Nutritive Uses.

—The edible fruits are not only valuable on account of the nourishment they contain but particularly so because of the general effect which they have upon the digestive operations. Their judicious use is conducive to health in many ways. The fruits are mildly laxative, as a rule, although there are some exceptions to this. For instance, in some berries, like the blackberry, the quantity of tannin present is sufficient to cause a styptic or binding action. While all the fruits contain tannin it is usually not in such proportions as to produce a constipating effect. On the other hand the combination of the acids, bases, pectins, and sugars favors a free and natural progress of the food through the alimentary canal. The entire withdrawal of fruit from the dietary, even if the nourishment it supplies be provided in some other way, would work great damage to health. There are certain dangers, however, to be avoided in the general use of fruit. Immature and imperfect fruits are unwholesome. Fruits are often subjected, moreover, to infection with eggs of various kinds of insects, and these organisms and the larvæ or eggs thereof may be introduced into the stomach with more or less injurious effects. In the eating of fruit, care should be exercised in the inspection and proper preparation of the article; it should be free from infection, decay, and insect life. The natural condition in which fruit is eaten is in the raw state, and in general it may be said that this is the more wholesome and preferable way of eating it. On the other hand the cooking of fruit sterilizes it and makes the consumer secure against any infection from bacteria and insect life, and in some ways promotes to a certain degree the digestive processes. This is especially true of fruits of a hard or unyielding nature. Cooked fruits, as a rule, may be considered less desirable than the natural article, but they deserve mention on account of their freedom from infection, wholesomeness, and general dietetic value. Some fruits, such as apples and pears, contain notable quantities of starch, especially in the immature state, and this disappears to a greater or less extent during the process of ripening. At the period of complete maturity the starch is reduced to a minimum and the sugar in the fruit reaches a maximum. After this period the fruit begins to lose in dietetic value, due to the natural process of decay, which is not even entirely checked by placing the fruit in cold storage. The sugar gradually ferments and disappears. The fruit becomes more spongy and less palatable and its general properties are impaired. Other fruits, such as the orange and lemon, berries, etc., contain little or no starch at any period of their growth. By careful storage the period of maturity may be prolonged for weeks or even months, and thus the fruit made available over a very much longer period than would otherwise be the case. Under the existing conditions of communication with all parts of the world it is not impracticable for even those who are not blest with wealth to have a daily supply of fresh fruits grown in different parts of the world. In temperate climes fresh fruits are available from June until May of the following year, either furnished directly from the orchard or properly preserved by storage.

Apples.

—The apple is one of the principal fruits in the market both for its crop value and for its general properties.

It is the most abundant as well as the most valuable of fruits. The apple is grown practically in all parts of the United States, but there are some localities in which the apple tree flourishes in great abundance. Among the states which are famous for apple growing may be mentioned New York, Virginia, Michigan, and Missouri.

The varieties of apples are so numerous that it will be useless to attempt to mention them. Some of the most important are the Ben Davis, the Pippin, the Winesap, Jonathan, Rhode Island Greening, York, Albemarle Pippin, Clayton, Early Harvester, Sweet June, Tompkins King, Northern Spy, Russet, Yellow Bellflower, etc.

Acidity of Apples.

—One of the chief points in the palatability of apples as well as in their general character is their acidity. While apples are not relished when too sour they are as little relished when too sweet. The sugar and acid in apples are the chief factors in their palatability, not excluding the delicate flavor imparted by essential oils and ethereal substances which, though present in such small quantities as not to be measured chemically, nevertheless are highly important in making up the total effect of palatability and wholesomeness. The chief acid in apples is malic. It exists during all periods of the growth of the apple, but is more apparent in the green and immature state than in the ripe fruit. The relative quantity of malic acid in respect of sugar and starch is given under the heading of “Behavior of Apples During Storage.”

Adulteration of Apples.

—There is, of course, no adulteration of apples in their natural state except the attempt which is sometimes made to deceive the purchaser respecting the character of the whole package by placing the best and most attractive fruit on the top. This is such a well known practice, though regrettable, as not to demand any particular comment. The purchaser who has his own interest at stake will usually inspect the bottom as well as the top of the package before buying. The chief forms of debasement are those which are not practiced with any attempt to deceive. They consist in offering apples which are bruised by carelessness in gathering, or which are infected by insect life. In fact the greatest damage to which the apple is subject is that of the ravages of insects. There are certain kinds of insects which naturally breed in the apple. The egg is often laid in the early development of the fruit and by the time the apples are ready for consumption the larvæ stage has been reached and the worm has produced ravages to a great extent which are often not indicated by any external appearance. It is evident that the farmer cannot be held responsible in all cases for this condition of the fruit. Nevertheless it is only fair to state that in the modern development of the spraying industry the ravages of insect pests can be restrained and controlled, if not entirely prevented, by the proper spraying of the fruit. This spraying introduces another danger which cannot be forgotten, namely, the remaining upon the surface of the fruit of some of the spraying material itself. If present at all this material is apt to be either at the point of the junction of the stem with the fruit or at the opposite extremity of the apple. For this reason the fruit when eaten raw should be peeled in order that any remaining particles of the poisonous material used in spraying may be removed. It is to the interest of the merchant to present fruit of this kind in the most attractive form, by the exclusion of bruised, rotten, or infected apples and the offering of the sound, ripe fruit in as presentable a condition as possible.

Composition of Apples at Various Stages of Maturity.

—The following table shows the analysis made of one variety of apple, the Baldwin, at various stages of maturity:

The chief point of interest in the above analysis is the gradual decline of the starch. When the apple is overripe the starch is entirely gone. When the apple is ripe only a small part of the starch is found. In the green apple very large quantities of starch are found. The sugar increases as the starch diminishes. There is a little over 14 percent of sugar in the perfectly ripe apple but much less in the green. The acidity calculated as malic acid diminishes as maturity is approached. In general it may be said that in the ripening of an apple the starch is converted into sugar and the acidity is diminished.

The composition of apples varies very greatly, as may be easily understood, with the variety of the apple examined, the character of the season in which it grew, and with the individual apple or sample. The best that can be done in showing the composition of apples is to give some of the most reliable analyses, covering the largest range of examinations in this and other countries. In the following table are given three sets of analyses of American apples and two sets of foreign apples, the first three being American and the second series being foreign.

The table gives the number of samples included in the analytical data, and the mean, maximum, and minimum results of the analyses.

The combination of the average data of the American series shows a mean percentage of reducing or invert sugar of 7.90 and of cane sugar of 3.40. The average American apple therefore contains 11.30 percent sugar.

Dietetic Value.

—The wholesomeness of apples is well recognized by all authors on physiology and hygiene, and the necessity of at least a partial fruit diet is acknowledged by all. Inasmuch as the apple is one of the most abundant of fruits, being produced in enormous quantities and sold often at a very low rate, its value as a food product is probably not as fully acknowledged by our own people as it should be. Through a greater part of the year apples can be made a staple article of diet. They are, of course, to be most highly recommended uncooked, and especially those varieties which have high palatable qualities and a suitable softness of texture. Very hard apples, even if palatable, are not recommended for eating raw. In a cooked state the apples are scarcely less wholesome and nutritious than in the raw state. It is true that in pastry their good qualities are often counteracted by the poor quality of the pastry envelop which, by reason of the method of its preparation, usually with an excessive quantity of lard or some other oil or fat, is rendered sometimes not only unpalatable but also difficult of digestion. In a stewed condition or prepared in some other unobjectionable manner no adverse criticism can be made upon the quality of the apple as an edible product. It may also be preserved in cans by sterilization by the process described under canned fruits. In this condition the product is known as “canned apples.” When prepared in this way the apples are often flavored with sugar and sometimes with spices.

Many suggestions are often given as to the proper time for eating apples, but it probably makes little difference, so far as their dietary or hygienic character is concerned, whether they are eaten before or after meals or during meals. Since it is advisable, as a rule, not to introduce into the stomach continually fresh portions of food, it may be regarded as safe advice to suggest that the consumption of fruit be made practically a function of the meal and that it be not used indiscriminately, loading the stomach between meals with additional quantities of material which require digestion.

Length of Harvest.

—By selecting varieties that mature early in the summer, in the early autumn, and in the late autumn the period for harvesting apples may be prolonged in the northern states from August to November. During this period, if the different varieties are properly selected for the maturing time, the ripe apple can be offered to the markets fresh from the tree during the entire season. As a rule the later maturing varieties are more palatable, more aromatic, and more nutritious than those that mature early.

Pectose Content of Apples.

—The juice of apples like the juice of many other fruits has the property of coagulating to a solid or semi-solid material on boiling to a proper consistence and allowing to stand. It is due, essentially, to the existence of pectin or pectose bodies as described in the introduction on the chapter on fruits. This is a body allied to the carbohydrates and must be regarded as one of the essential constituents of apples and as imparting to them a characteristic flavor and quality.

Picking and Care of Apples.

—The greatest difficulty experienced in marketing apples is in the danger of bruising either at the time of picking or during transportation. The apple when removed from the tree still remains a living organism with all of its functional activities, except additional growth, continuing in full power. As a rule, at the time of picking the apple is not yet mature, and unless intended for immediate consumption the utmost care should be exercised that the skin be not broken or the flesh bruised. Wherever the flesh of the apple is bruised it lessens its vitality and decay soon begins. This is shown very conclusively in the studies in the Bureau of Chemistry, where it was found that the starch which is still present in apples at the time of picking is gradually converted into sugar during the storage of the apple, thus increasing the palatability of the fruit. In those parts of the flesh that have been bruised and the vitality impaired the starch remains unchanged during the process of ripening. By the careful picking of the fruit and wrapping in soft papers, so as to prevent bruising in transit, apples of the proper character can be transported long distances, even beyond the seas, and arrive in good condition. This is an especially important fact in the American product, because our foreign trade in fresh apples is very large and constantly growing. It is useless to attempt to send a bruised or decaying apple on a long journey, since it will arrive in a condition unfit for consumption and, further than this, the organisms which are active in decay are conveyed to the sound fruit, and thus a whole package may be infected from a single apple in bad condition.

Storage of Apples.

—The apple is a crop which is capable of being stored through many months, especially in winter time, without any material deterioration. The subject of the storage of apples has been carefully studied in the Bureau of Chemistry and the Bureau of Plant Industry, and the following are some of the conclusions which have been reached:

Tannin Principle.

—Apples, as is the case with other fruits, have a notable content of tannin in some form. This constituent of apples is also active in giving flavor and palatability to the product. It is not present in quantities which render the apple unusually bitter or styptic in its character. Inasmuch as tannin is practically a universal constituent of all vegetable substances it must not be neglected as a normal constituent of fruit, while some of the fruits, especially the grape, owe some of their chief characteristics as to flavor and palatability to their tannin content.

Preparation of Apples for Drying.

—The apples usually are brought to the large factories in wagons or by railway and are pared and sliced by machinery. Where proper control is exercised all the imperfect, rotten, and infected apples are rejected, and are used either for cattle feeding or sometimes, unfortunately, in cider making. The sound apples, after they are pared and sliced, are placed in trays and passed to a sulfuring apparatus where they are exposed to the fumes of burning sulfur to prevent their becoming dark upon evaporation. In other words it is essentially a bleaching process. The fumes of sulfur are also strongly antiseptic in character, and thus the finished product is less likely to decay or become infected with mould than a similar product not exposed to the fumes of sulfur. This process is extensively practiced, but its extent does not render it immune from proper criticism. Of 24 samples of evaporated fruits purchased on the open market 13 samples had been treated with sulfur fumes. This shows that over 50 percent of evaporated fruits are sulfured during the process of preparation and evaporation. The greater number of physiological and hygienic experts agree that the fumes of burning sulfur, commonly known as sulfurous acid, are injurious to health. It has been shown by researches in the Bureau of Chemistry that sulfurous acid or sulfites have a specific influence upon the red corpuscles of the blood, tending to diminish them very largely in relative numbers. This acid has also many other influences upon metabolism of an objectionable character. The question is one worthy of very careful consideration—whether for the sake of preserving a light color and securing immunity from mould or decay it is advisable to introduce into a food product any quantity whatever of a substance injurious to health. The answer to this question seems almost unavoidable, and it is, and should be, negative. It is highly advisable that the manufacturer of evaporated apples, as well as other fruits treated in a similar manner, should at once begin a series of experimental determinations for the purpose of ascertaining whether or not a product equally as palatable and more wholesome cannot be made without the use of sulfurous acid. The result of this investigation cannot be doubted. There is no doubt whatever, even at the present time, that by the elimination of the sulfuring process a product can be made which is far more wholesome, although perhaps not so presentable as that which is now made. If all manufacturers of evaporated fruits practice the same method there can be no injury in the market as a result of a darker color which the finished product would assume. On the contrary the consumer of this product would soon understand that the darker color was due to a more hygienic method of preparation, and hence the product would be commended in such a way as doubtless to enter more largely into consumption. Instead of the manufacturer being injured by the prohibition of the use of sulfur he would in a very short time be greatly benefited. It is hoped that by the means of general information which is spread abroad concerning matters of this kind among our people and also through the operations of national and state laws the use of injurious substances, such as the fumes of burning sulfur in connection with food products, may be entirely discontinued.

Dried Apples.

—A very important industry in this country is the preservation of apples by drying or evaporation. The term “dried” apples is usually applied to the product which is naturally dried by cutting the apples into convenient sizes and exposing them to the action of the sun. This is more of a domestic than a commercial industry, and until the introduction of artificial drying was practiced very generally by the farmers’ wives of the country. It was not an unusual thing in the autumn to see the roofs of smoke houses or kitchens practically covered with sliced apples exposed to the drying influence of the autumnal sun. In such cases care must be exercised always to have the exposed articles under such control as to enable them to be gathered up and put away when rain is threatening. The dried apple is a wholesome fruit, although somewhat unattractive in appearance owing to the darkening of the surface during the long exposure necessary to secure the proper degree of evaporation. When properly prepared the dried apple has its moisture content reduced to approximately 30 percent or less.

Evaporated Apples.

—The term “evaporated” is applied to apples produced on the same principle as “dried,” but instead of being exposed to the heat of the sun they are artificially dried by evaporation. This industry has reached a great magnitude in this country, and Wayne Co., New York, especially, may be regarded as one of the centers of the evaporating industry.

Cherries.

—The cultivated cherry tree is believed by Bailey and Powell to have been derived from its ancestral type, the sour cherry (Prunus cerasus L.), which is characterized by a diffuse and mostly low, round-headed growth with fruit which is always red, with soft flesh and very sour taste, and from the sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.), a tall growing tree with the bark tending to peel off in birch-like rings and with variously colored fruit, spherical or heart-shaped, with the flesh hard or soft and generally sweet. There are a great many varieties of these trees. The cherry orchard begins to bear profitably at about the age of five years; the trees often live to a great age and continue to bear fruit. Records of cherry trees over a hundred years old are known. However, it is believed that about thirty years is the limit for profitable bearing. Cherries grow in all parts of the United States. Formerly the crop was a very important one in the East, especially New York, but of late years the California cherries have been more and more occupying the market. As a rule the California cherries are finer in appearance, larger, and freer from worms and imperfections, and possess a flavor which is often equal to that of the best flavored cherries grown in the East.

Composition of Cherries.

—What has been said respecting the variations in the composition of apples is applicable with equal force to cherries. In the following table is given first the mean composition of six samples of cherries of American origin with the maximum and minimum. Following this is the mean composition of nine samples of foreign cherries.

The data show that the average quantity of insoluble matter in cherries is about the same whether of American or foreign origin. The total solids represent that part of the cherry which is not water, including principally the cellulose, the ash, and the protein. The quantity of protein, as is seen, is quite small, the average being a little less than 1¹⁄₂ percent. The total sugar present, including cane sugar and reducing sugar, is a little over 11 percent. The analytical table does not give the minute portions of essential oils, ethereal substances, and acids to which the juice owes its distinctive flavor.

Varieties.

—There are a great many trade-names given to different varieties of cherries. In New York the common varieties are the Black Tartarian, Black Eagle, Napoleon, Yellow Spanish, Windsor, May Duke, Robert’s Red Heart, Governor Wood, Early Richmond, etc.

A great many cherry trees are also grown in Iowa. The varieties most prized in Iowa are the Malaheb, the Mazzard, Wild Bird Cherry, Sand Cherry, American Morello, Russian Seedling, Northwest, Duchess d’Angoulême, and very many others.

In Virginia the principal varieties, in addition to those mentioned, which are cultivated, are the Coe, Early Purple, Kirtland Mary, Rockport, Olivet, Philippe, etc.

The cherry owes one of its chief values to the fact that it is one of the first orchard fruits to ripen. In the vicinity of Washington cherries ripen in May, and further north not later than June. The cherry, therefore, offers a delicious and wholesome fruit early in the season, and is the precursor of the crops of orchard fruits which begin early in May and last until the frosts of autumn. It is eaten raw, stewed, or in the form of pie or pudding. For cooking purposes it is desirable that the pit of the cherry be removed.

Grapes.

—There is no fruit more highly esteemed in this and other countries than grapes. The utilization of grapes for wine making is reserved for discussion in the companion volume to the present manual devoted to beverages. Table grapes are grown extensively in this country in New York, Ohio, Virginia, Missouri, and California. In fact, such grapes are grown in almost every state, but those mentioned embrace the principal grape-growing districts. The Catawba and Delaware varieties are the chief products of the northern vineyards. Many other varieties are produced in California, such as the Tokay, Muscat, and Malaga, while in the South one of the principal varieties is the Scuppernong. The oldest grape vine known in the United States is the original Scuppernong stock.

I am indebted to Dr. B. W. Kilgore, of Raleigh, N. C., for the following description of the vine and also for Fig. 48.