Foods and Their Adulteration / Origin, Manufacture, and Composition of Food Products; Description of Common Adulterations, Food Standards, and National Food Laws and Regulations

There is no part of the country, however, that grows grapes so abundantly as California. Many thousands of acres are covered with vines, both for table use and wine making. The climate is remarkably well suited to produce a grape very rich in sugar. The edible grapes do not have so high a content of sugar as those used for wine making, as is shown by the data below.

Composition of California Grapes

 (three samples) (edible portion):

The preceding analyses are evidently of grapes for table use. The juice of the wine-making grapes of California, according to the composition of the wine, contains about 24 percent of sugars.

The luxurious growth of the vine in California is illustrated by Fig. 49, showing a scene in a vineyard near Fresno, California.

Peaches.

—One of the most valued orchard fruits in the United States is the peach. The peach is a tree which is particularly sensitive to the environment in respect of bearing a crop. In many localities where peaches have once been valuable they have ceased to produce with any regularity, which renders the planting of an orchard inadvisable. The principal danger in the peach tree is the too early blooming and the exposure of the tender fruit to late frosts. The peach tree is also subject to many forms of disease, one of which, namely, the yellows, has baffled up to the present time the efforts of the experts to diagnose and treat. In planting a peach orchard experience has shown that it is well to plant the trees upon high ground or upon the sides of hills. By being placed on high ground near deep ravines it has been found that the chilling of the air, which would naturally come with frosts, makes the air heavier, so that it rolls down into the valleys, replacing the air on the hills with fresh portions unchilled and thus protecting the high ground from frost while the low ground is chilled below the freezing point. Everyone must have noticed, especially in the autumn at the time of the first frosts, that the vegetation in low lying land is usually killed before that on the adjacent hills. The peculiar susceptibility of the peach tree to the environment mentioned above has practically confined the culture of peaches to certain definite localities, as for instance to Michigan, Connecticut, Delaware, Maryland, Tennessee, and Georgia. The danger of late frosts of course does not attach to the peach tree grown in California and similarly situated localities. At the present time Georgia is probably the most important peach-growing state in the Union, both on account of the reasonable certainty of the crop and also because of the early date at which the peach can reach the markets of the large cities of the east and central portions of our country.

Many attempts have been made to protect the peach tree against the danger of premature blossoming and consequent exposure to the late frosts. In the cultivation of the trees it has been desirable to secure a variety which blooms as late in the spring as possible. The building of fires around a peach orchard in the spring when a frost is imminent has sometimes protected the orchard from disaster. This process is known as smudging. Another method of protecting the trees from the danger of late frosts is by whitewashing. The colors which absorb heat most readily are black and purple. White is one of the best protections by reason of its reflective power. A whitewashing of the branches of the trees and in fact of all the tree has been practiced with some success as retarding the early bloom of the buds. Elaborate studies of this method of treatment have been carried on by the Missouri station, and it has been developed that there is a considerable difference between the temperature of whitewashed and unwhitewashed peach twigs. The whitewash is therefore recommended as a means of retarding the development of the buds. The whitewashed trees bloom from a week to ten days later than those which are not thus treated. It is reasonably certain that by means of this kind or by cultivation a peach tree may be produced in any given locality which will put forth its buds from a week to ten days later than the normal period of blooming in that neighborhood. In regions where the winters are severe, the development of the tree in the early spring may also be prevented by placing straw round about it when the ground is frozen. The straw protects the frozen ground from rapid thawing and thus delays the development of the buds. The varieties of peach trees are legion, and it is useless to try to name them here. Some of the varieties most prized in Georgia are the Bishop, Champion, Crawford’s Early, Chinese Free, Crimson Beauty, Crosby, etc.

Composition of the Peach.

—Naturally, the peach varies greatly in its composition according to the variety, environment, and general accidental conditions. Its chief characteristics, of course, are the acid which it contains, its sugar content, and the taste and aroma due to the essential oils, ethers, etc., which are developed with proper delicacy in the fruit. The peach also has a distinct flavor associated with small quantities of hydrocyanic acid. This poisonous compound is developed in considerable quantities in the kernel of the fruit, and there are sufficient traces of the flavor above mentioned in the fruit itself to give a distinct and characteristic taste. The mean composition of some of the different varieties of peaches is given below:

Free and Cling Peach.

—Peaches may be divided into two great classes in respect of persistence with which the flesh adheres to the pit of the fruit. Peaches in which the flesh is separated easily from the pit, leaving the external surface of the pit dry and clean, are called freestones, while in the other variety, where the flesh is firmly attached to the pit and on the removal of the flesh a portion adheres thereto, the term “clingstone” is applied. There is probably no difference in the value of the two varieties, but by reason of the ease with which the freestone peach can be utilized for eating and cooking purposes it is sometimes preferred.

Since the development of rapid means of transportation and the effective manner of cold storage the peach is exposed in the city markets from early spring to late autumn. The peaches in Florida are ready for the market in May and in Georgia from June on, while in the north the peach ripens at later periods up to October. In fact in the north the late peaches are esteemed as better in flavor and quality, and especially suitable for canning and preserving purposes.

Uses of the Peach.

—Peaches are perhaps the most esteemed of all the common fruits for eating purposes. On the table the sliced peaches with sugar and cream is a common dish through the whole summer in almost every part of the country. Peach cobbler (a deep pie) and peach pudding are dishes which are highly esteemed.

Plums.

—(Native Plums.) The following data represent the mean composition of three samples of California plums:

The plums imported from Japan and the hybrids produced therefrom are considered of higher value than the native plum. The Japan plum (Prunus triflora) has been introduced into this country for many years. They are larger and handsomer and have better shipping qualities than those of native origin, except perhaps in a few cases. The trees are also less subject to that great enemy of the plum, the curculio, than the native plum. Of the plum trees grown in Georgia the varieties of native trees which are recommended are the Clifford and the Wilder, of Japan trees the Lutts, Red June, Abundance, and Chabot, and of the hybrid varieties, the Wickson. Plums in Georgia mature from the first of June until the middle of July. Further north the date of maturity is later. The plum, as well as the cherry, flourishes especially in California, which is more famous for these fruits than any other state.

Quince.

—The quince is a fruit which is not very extensively used raw, but is valued chiefly as a preserve. The quince flourishes in localities that produce good apples, but the magnitude of the crop is very restricted as compared with apples.

Small Fruits.

Blackberries (Rubus nigrobaccus var. Sativus Bailey).

—Among the small fruits one of the most common and abundant is the blackberry. This fruit grows wild over large areas in the United States, mostly in the middle portion between the extreme north and south. The brier on which it grows is an annual plant, springing each year from the roots and dying after bearing fruit. The plant is very largely cultivated, bearing larger and more presentable berries, but gaining nothing in flavor and palatability. The berries are generally black when fully ripe, though red during the ripening stage and sometimes when mature. They are eaten raw, stewed, and in pies or “cobblers.” The berry is extensively used for making jams, jellies, and preserves, and for canning purposes. The juice of the berry is used for making a wine, usually with the admixture of sugar. Blackberry cordial is blackberry juice preserved in whisky or brandy.

Dewberry.

—This is a variety of blackberry in which the vines lie on the ground instead of standing upright. Some of the dewberries possess unusual fragrance and palatability. In other respects they conform to the statements relating to blackberries.

Gooseberry (Ribes oxyacanthoides L.).

—The gooseberry resembles very closely the currant in its general properties. In the European gooseberry the surface is covered with prickles, but the American variety is smooth. The gooseberry bush is found in most gardens, affording a fruit of high condimental value. The fruit is eaten raw, but principally in pies and as preserves.

Huckleberry (Gaylussacia resinosa Torr. and Gray).

—The fruit of the huckleberry bush is used very extensively for making pies, especially in the northeastern parts of the United States. There are many varieties of the berry on the markets. The blueberry is one variety that is very abundant. The term whortleberry is also applied to this fruit.

Mulberry (Morus nigra).

—The mulberry grows wild over extensive areas in the United States, especially in the Ohio valley. It is a tree valued highly for its wood, which is lasting and excellent for fence-posts. The berries ripen early in the summer or late in the spring and are used as food to a limited extent.

Raspberry (Rubus strigosus Michx.).

—The raspberry is nearly related to the blackberry in all of its characters. It is chiefly a cultivated plant, being less hardy than the blackberry, and therefore not growing wild to such an extent. The fruit matures just before the blackberry, and is usually of a red color and of a pleasant characteristic taste.

Strawberry (Fragaria Chiloensis Ehrh.).

—For edible purposes in its fresh state the strawberry is the most important of the small fruits. It is offered on the markets at all seasons of the year—ripening in the winter time in Florida and California and coming into the markets in the late summer in the northern and northeastern states. It grows on vines lying on the ground and ripens early in the spring in the latitude of Washington, viz., from about the middle of May. It is eaten raw—often with sugar and cream—more extensively than any other small fruit. The wild strawberry is not so large as the cultivated variety, but is more highly prized for its aroma and taste.

Composition of Small Fruits.—

Tropical and Subtropical Fruits.
(Bulletin 87, Bureau of Chemistry.)

Anona.

—This is a variety of edible fruit grown in the tropics, especially in Cuba, but on account of its restricted production is of little importance. There are three varieties, known as follows: Sweet-sop (anona) (Anona squamosa L.), sour-sop (guanabana) (Anona muricata L.), and custard apple (chirimoya) (Anona reticulata L.). The sour-sop is a green, irregular-shaped, pod-like fruit, varying from 3¹⁄₂ inches to 12 inches in length and about two-thirds as broad near the top, and curving to a blunt point at the lower end. The skin is thick and covered with numerous small, hooked briers. The pulp has the appearance of wet cotton and surrounds the numerous seed sacs containing the small brown seeds. A fibrous core runs through the fruit from the stem to the lower point. The fruit weighs from 3.5 ounces to 2.2 pounds. The flavor is acid, but not too much so. This fruit is more extensively used in the manufacture of cooling beverages than directly as a food, but it is also used very extensively for making preserves. The sweet-sop resembles the sour-sop in general character, but does not attain by any means to so large a size. The fruit is heart-shaped and deeply creased. The pulp contains more sugar and less acid than that of the sour-sop. This variety is eaten fresh and is also used for flavoring beverages, but is not extensively used for making preserves. The third variety, known as the custard apple, varies in color from light green to reddish brown, and is shaped something like a strawberry. It has a thick skin and black seeds, and a pulp very similar to that of sweet-sop in flavor. It is eaten chiefly raw, and is not very extensively used in the manufacture of preserves.

Composition of the Sour- and Sweet-sop Varieties.—

The above analyses show that the anona is a fruit which has about half the nutritive value of the banana. It has a much larger percentage of waste, especially the sweet-sop variety, where nearly three-fourths of the fruit is not edible.

Anona Preserves.

—The anona preserves should be made exclusively with sugar and thus have the character of the fruit modified only by the amount of sugar added. In one sample of preserves analyzed the following data were obtained:

The above data show that the natural constituents of the fruit have been diminished in quantity in proportion to the amount of sugar added.

The Avocado (Persea persea).

—The avocado is a fruit which has only lately been introduced into the United States. Its common name is alligator pear and it is already very highly prized.

The cultivation of the alligator pear was first undertaken as a novelty, and its real value as a dessert fruit is only beginning to be appreciated. It is evident that this fruit will have a great vogue in the near future, and will be in much demand as soon as its production is on a scale which makes it accessible to the people of ordinary means. The edible part of the fruit is a sweet, soft substance with an agreeable taste and of a semi-solid consistence. It has a nutty and peculiar flavor which is highly prized.

In the regions where the alligator pear is grown it is often used in the raw state or after having been treated with a little salt. It is highly prized when served in this manner. It is also often cut into small pieces and put into soup and is said to give a most agreeable odor and flavor thereto. The ripe fruit has different colors; it may be green, yellow, brown or dark purple or a combination of any of these colors. The alligator pear is particularly valued as a salad fruit.

Composition of the Avocado.—

The above data show that the alligator pear is not a fruit which is very highly nutritious. Its principle nutrient is fat, the next most important being starch and sugar, but it is extremely deficient in protein, and therefore could not be regarded as a balanced ration. Its principle value, therefore, is mostly on account of its condimental properties rather than for its nutrients. Bulletins 61 and 77 of the Bureau of Plant Industry, Department of Agriculture, give important information regarding the avocado. The accompanying illustration is taken from Bulletin 77, above mentioned.

From the amount of fat in the alligator pear it might be regarded as a nut instead of a fruit, but its paucity of nitrogenous constituents excludes it from that category.

Bananas (Musa).

—One of the most abundant and most important of the tropical fruits, for food purposes, is the banana. The banana is not grown to any extent for food purposes in the United States, though it is produced on a limited scale in southern Florida. Immense quantities of bananas come into this country from the Central American states, particularly from Guatemala and Nicaragua. This fruit can be landed at New Orleans at very small expense for transportation, and for this reason can be distributed all over the country at a price which looks to be ridiculously small when it is considered that the fruit comes from so great a distance. It is also sent in large quantities to other ports, notably New York, Boston, and Baltimore. For shipping purposes the banana is gathered while still green, and often the ripening has not reached the stage when the ordinary yellow color which characterizes the ripe fruit is seen when it reaches the markets in the center of the country. The banana is not only valued for its peculiar flavor, which is pleasant and sweet, sometimes almost too much so, but it also has a high nutritive value, being a substance rich in carbohydrates and growing in such abundance that its price is within the reach of the poorest classes. Great quantities of bananas are also grown in Cuba, but they are mostly consumed by the native population, forming one of the principal foods of the island.

The banana has perhaps less waste than almost any other fruit, as the whole of the inner portion is edible. In the green fruit there is a large proportion of starch, which gradually changes into invert sugar in the ripe fruit. In thoroughly mature bananas the quantity of sugar is relatively high and the quantity of starch correspondingly low. Bananas are not only eaten raw but also fried and in various other forms. The banana is a fruit which, when properly cared for, can be transported over long distances and kept for a long time. When properly prepared the banana forms a nutritious diet, probably equal in value to the same amount of solid matter contained in the common fresh fruits. One hundred grams may be taken as the average weight of the banana, although some of them are very much larger. About 70 percent of the banana is edible and 30 percent inedible, that is, the skin, which while not wholly inedible is usually rejected. The banana is essentially a carbohydrate food, the percentage of protein not usually rising above 1.3. Nearly all the carbohydrates in the ripe fruit consist of sugars which are present both as reducing and as cane sugars. The average total percentage of sugar present in the banana is a little over 20.

The composition of the banana is shown in the following table which contains the data of analyses of two samples bought in the open market in Washington.

The analytical data were obtained upon the edible portion and not upon the whole fruit.

The bananas which are imported from Jamaica and Central America are represented by the analyses given above. They are commonly known as the Johnson banana. Smaller fruits with better flavors are grown in Cuba,—some of them are of a red color like the oronoco and colorado. The indiano is a large, yellow, angular fruit with a salmon-colored pulp and a rather disagreeable acid flavor.

With reference to the banana as a food product it is seen that, including the starch and digestible cellulose, it consists of at least 25 percent, in its edible portion, of carbohydrates suitable for food purposes. Its low content of protein indicates that it is not a well balanced ration, but should be eaten in connection with beans, peas, or other vegetables rich in protein, or with lean meat in order to secure a proper quantity of protein in the diet.

On account of the great abundance of the product and luxuriance of growth in the Central American states, it is evident that the banana might become a profitable source of industrial alcohol in that locality.

Cashew (Maranon) (Anacardium occidentale).

—The cashew, of which the principal habitat is Cuba, is a small, oddly shaped, yellow and red fruit from two to three inches long and from ¹⁄₂ to two inches in diameter at the bottom, decreasing gradually in diameter toward the top. The seed is small and kidney-shaped and grows outside of the fruit at the lower end. The seed is regarded as poisonous until it has been roasted, due probably to the presence of hydrocyanic acid. After roasting it is regarded as a delectable edible. The meat of the seed of the cashew resembles the roasted chestnut, but contains more oil. The pulp is of a dull yellow color, is tough and very juicy, with an acid astringent flavor and a disagreeable odor. The fruit is not eaten raw but chiefly in preserves. The composition of the cashew is shown in the following table:

Composition of Edible Portion

—85.9 percent.—

The composition is somewhat like that of the hicaco, but the cashew contains a larger proportion of acid and hence is better suited for preserves. The sample of cashew preserves examined had the following composition:

Citrus Fruits.

—The term “citrus fruit” is applied to that class of fruits represented by the orange, lemon, grape fruit, and lime. In the United States extensive areas are devoted to the production of citrus fruits, and it is claimed by connoisseurs that some of the best varieties grown anywhere in the world are the products of this country. Florida and southern California are two localities where the development of the citrus fruit industry has been carried to the greatest extent. The phenomenally cold winter which occurred in Florida some ten years ago almost ruined the citrus fruit industry in that state for the time being. In the reëstablishment of it the center of production has been extended farther south than it was before. It is believed that at the present time the industry has been extended sufficiently far south in the Florida peninsula to avoid any repetition of the great disaster which ruined the citrus groves in certain portions of the state at the time mentioned. The climate of southern California is more equable, and no injury has ever been experienced in that location from very low temperature. In Florida the oranges are cultivated without irrigation, while in southern California irrigation is universally practiced. The seasonal conditions are therefore under better control in California than in Florida.

Figs (Ficus carica L.).

—The fig is a fruit which is well known in biblical and profane history. Together with the grape it is the fruit which is most often mentioned in the Bible.

The importance of the fig as a fruit and food is recognized in all the earlier writings, both sacred and profane. When dried and pressed into convenient forms it is a food which can be easily transported, and makes a ration well suited to supply heat and energy, although deficient in nitrogen in so far as a complete ration is concerned. The fig tree is extensively cultivated in all localities where the temperature permits its growth. It grows in the open in the whole southern part of the United States, and I have seen fig trees of large size grow in the yard as far north as Washington.

The fig tree grows luxuriantly and to a great size in California, and the fruit, both fresh and dried, is of superior excellence. A typical illustration of a California fig tree is shown in Fig. 51.

The Smyrna fig has lately been introduced into the southern and western part of the United States with great success. It grows especially well in the southern part of California and Arizona. The Smyrna fig is one of the varieties which requires fertilization of the flower through the mediation of an insect. This process is called caprification. Although this variety of fig has only been introduced into California to any extent in the last five or six years, the growth of this most highly esteemed variety has so increased that at the present time the output of California alone amounts to about twelve million pounds per annum. The Smyrna and Adriatic figs, used largely for drying and preserving purposes, are seen in their natural colors in the appended colored plate.

Composition of Fresh Figs (Edible Portion).—

Composition of Dried Figs.—

The interesting process of caprification is thus described by Professor Hugh N. Starnes of the Georgia Experiment Station:

“In the base or false ovary of the gall flowers, which are merely degenerate pistillates, the egg of the Blastophaga grossorum or fig wasp—a minute insect—is deposited and develops to maturity. The wingless males emerge first and, with their powerful mandibles, cut into the flowers containing the female wasps, partially release them, and impregnate them. The gravid females shortly complete the liberating process and, being winged, at once seek to escape for the instinctive purpose of laying their eggs. They emerge from the eye of the caprifig, after squeezing through the mass of pollen-covered anthers protecting the exit, and seek other fruit in which to lay their eggs. Naturally they would enter the nearest caprifig in the proper stage of development. But, meanwhile, if the caprifig containing the colony has been plucked from its stem and suspended in the branches of an adjacent Smyrna tree, the female on emerging forces her way in a fruit of the latter class, losing her wings in the process, and at once begins a frantic scramble around the interior, searching for the anticipated gall flowers in which to deposit her eggs. Failing, necessarily, to find them, and incapable of again taking flight, she finally curls up and dies heartbroken, but not until she and her companions have between them pollinated every female flower in the cavity with the plentiful store of pollen conveyed from the caprifig—thereby insuring the development of the fruit.”

Grape Fruit (Pomelo) (Citrus decumana).

—The so-called grape fruit or pomelo is one of the biggest products of the citrus family and also possesses properties which may be regarded as a cross between the lemon and the orange. It is more acid than the orange and more sweet than the lemon. This fruit is perhaps more highly esteemed than any other citrus variety for direct edible purposes, forming a breakfast dish which is eaten very extensively throughout all parts of the United States by those who are able to afford the luxury, for so it still is by reason of the high price of the product. Grape fruit grows to a large extent in the United States, and its culture is confined to the same region as that where the orange and lemon are grown.

Composition of Grape Fruit (Pomelo).

—The composition of the pomelo as given for the California product (Station Report, 1892, p. 256) shows this fruit to have the following composition:

Composition of the juice from the edible portion:

Professor Colby says in discussing these analyses that the proportion of acid is larger in these samples than the general taste demands.

Cuban Grape Fruit.

—The grape fruit which is grown in Cuba has quite a different character. Its flavor is mild, and it is almost devoid of the bitter taste which is found in the American product, and which adds greatly to its palatable properties when the consumer becomes accustomed to it.

A marmalade is made from the grape fruit similar in all respects, except the peculiar flavor given by the raw material, to that made from oranges. It is evident from its high palatable properties and its wholesomeness that grape fruit will become more and more an article of value and be consumed in large quantities throughout the country.

Guava (Psidium Guajava).

—This fruit is grown very extensively in both California and Florida, also in Cuba, where a number of varieties grow wild. The white guava is a small, round fruit, grayish-white or yellow in color, and having an average weight of 1.5 ounces. The pear-shaped fruit, the guava of Peru, is about twice the size of the white variety, but otherwise resembles it very closely. Both varieties contain large numbers of small seeds scattered throughout the yellowish-white pulp. As a rule the guava is not eaten raw, but it is a fruit from which some of the most highly prized jelly pastes and preserves are made.

Composition of the Guava.

—The guava contains, in its fresh state, an average of a little less than 80 percent of water and a little more than 20 percent of solid matter. The solid materials in guavas are quite insoluble in water, more than one-half of them not passing into solution. The chief part of the soluble constituents of guavas are the sugars, and these exist chiefly in the invert state. The total percentage of sugar in guavas in the fresh state averages about six, the protein amounts to about one percent, and the ash to a little over one-half of one percent. The value of the guava, therefore, is more condimental than nutritive, and for this reason it is seen why it is not a valuable food product eaten in the raw state.

Guava Preserves.

—A large number of preserves are made from the guava, and these products are well known and relished throughout the country. The preserves are in various forms, being chiefly pastes, marmalades, and jellies. These preparations contain the aromas and flavoring qualities of the fruit, and when pure contain no added product save sugar. They contain from 60 to 75 percent of added sugar. The preserved products of the guava are generally packed in wooden boxes, lined with paper, though some are packed in glass. The crystallized guava, the guava cream, and the pastes contain large quantities of added sugar, namely, about 80 percent. These preserves naturally have a very low acid content by reason of the quantity of sugar which has been added in their preparation. In this country often the whole fruits are preserved in sugar sirup.

Hicaco (Chrysobalanus icaco).

—The fruit of the hicaco is small and round, varying from one to three inches in diameter. The average weight of each fruit is about ¹⁄₄ oz. The skin is thin and green in color, shading to red on the side exposed to the sun. It grows on a small shrub and is sometimes called the cocoa plum. The surface is somewhat shrivelled and wrinkled, and the seed weighs almost half as much as the whole fruit. The fruit is not eaten in a fresh state, but is used for making preserves. It is sweet to the taste and has a low acid content. The composition of the fresh fruit is shown by the following table:

Composition of Edible Portion

—68.9 percent.—

These data show that the hicaco is a fruit low in nutritive value, in so far as sugar is concerned, of a low content of protein and very slight acidity.

Hicaco Preserves.

—A sample of hicaco preserves was found to have the following composition:

The above data indicate only the change in composition which would come from adding the sugar in the process of manufacture. By reason of the low acidity of the fruit the sugar in the preserves would, theoretically, be largely cane sugar. In the case mentioned, however, one-third of the sugar was inverted. Whether this was accomplished by the action of the acid on the sugar during the process of manufacture or whether by the use of molasses instead of sugar in the preserves does not appear. More likely it is due to the latter.

Kumquat (Citrus japonica).

—The kumquat is one of the smallest of citrus fruits. It stands as one extreme of that important family of which the grape fruit or pomelo represents the other. The fruit is oval in shape, about one inch in diameter, and is one and one-half inches long. It may be regarded as a dwarf orange, and was brought into the United States from Japan, although it is a native of China. The name—kumquat—is of Chinese origin and is intended to mean “Gold Orange.” The kumquat tree, under favorable circumstances, reaches a height of 10 or 12 feet and forms a compact, symmetrical, and handsome head. The pulp of the fruit is very tender and agreeably acid and the rind is spicy, as is the case with most of the acid fruits. It is not only valued as a fruit, but the tree is also highly prized as an ornament. Its beautifully colored fruit, in contrast with its green leaves, presents a most agreeable spectacle. It is grown in the United States principally in Florida. The composition of the kumquat is practically that of the orange.

Lemons.

—The citrus fruit, next in importance to the orange, if not more important, is the lemon (Citrus limonum). This fruit is grown extensively in the United States in the same localities that produce the orange, that is, chiefly in Florida and southern California. Its method of cultivation, general treatment, time of ripening and harvesting are the same as that of the orange. Its principal difference from the orange is in its greater acidity and in certain peculiarities of its aromatic and oily substances. From the rind is produced an essential oil which, while resembling that of the orange in general character, has distinct properties which easily discriminate it from the orange product. The lemon also has a correspondingly less proportion of sugar than the orange. In 22 analyses of California lemons they were found to contain 5.26 percent of acid and only 2.33 percent of sugar. The distinct feature of the lemon, therefore, is its acidity. The principal acid present in lemons is citric acid, though other organic acids are also found. The acids are either free or in combination with a base, the principal base being potash. On account of its high acidity and low sugar content the lemon is used more as a relish and in the manufacture of acid beverages than directly as a food. There are some varieties known as sweet lemons which are eaten as oranges or used directly for food purposes, but generally the lemon is too sour and acid for consumption in this manner.

Lime.

—A species of citrus fruit which is even more acid than the lemon is known as the lime (Citrus hysrix acida).

Limes are not eaten directly as food on account of their high acidity, but their expressed juice is sold throughout the world for beverages and medicinal purposes. The lime also yields an essential oil, which is very similar in character to that derived from lemons. In fact the lime may be regarded as a very sour lemon, just as the orange may be regarded as a very sweet one.

Adulteration of Lime Juice.

—Unfortunately lime juice is offered on the market often in entirely spurious forms, that is, a mixture made up with flavoring of an acid character resembling that of the natural juice. The natural juice is also frequently adulterated by the addition of preservatives. Among these, sulfurous and salicylic acids are perhaps the most frequent. Lime juice can be perfectly preserved by sterilization, and there is no necessity for the use of preservatives therein.

In the tropics there is also found a lime of a saccharine character known as the sweet lime, but this fruit does not have a very great vogue.

Mamey Colorado.

—This is a tropical fruit which is very extensively grown in Cuba, and derives its local name from a very slight outward resemblance to the mammee (Mammea americana). These two fruits, however, have no botanical or other relation to each other, nor do they have any internal resemblance. The mamey colorado is chocolate brown in color, oval or round in shape, and its average weight is about 1.5 pounds. The skin is thick and coarse. The pulp has a yellowish color, varying to a deep scarlet, and is slightly fibrous and firm, but mealy and rather dry. It has a sweetish taste with very little acid flavor. It is eaten chiefly in the fresh state and is also stewed with sugar. The fruit usually contains but one seed, though as many as four are sometimes found. The seeds are imbedded in a soft core and are irregularly oval. The natural season is from December to August. These fruits are very largely used for making preserves.

The composition of the mamey colorado is as follows:

Composition of Edible Portion

—86.10 percent.—

The analysis shows that the mamey colorado is a fruit which in its edible properties and nutritive value very closely resembles the banana.

Mamey de Santo Domingo (Mammea americana).

—This is a fruit extensively used in Cuba and other tropical countries. It is of a light brown color, from three to ten inches in diameter, and weighs sometimes as much as 1¹⁄₂ pounds. The skin is thick and fibrous, the outer surface being tough and covered with small brown spots. The pulp is dark yellow in color, firm, and very juicy. It has a sweet characteristic flavor and a pleasant aromatic odor. The seeds sometimes measure three inches in diameter and cling tenaciously to the pulp. It is very commonly eaten raw and is highly esteemed for preserving purposes.

The composition of the mamey de Santo Domingo is shown in the following table:

Composition of Edible Portion

—60.70 percent.—

The above data show that this fruit is very much less sweet and very much more acid than the mamey colorado and for nutritive purposes is of much less value, but by reason of its greater acidity and higher flavoring it is more suitable for the manufacture of preserves than the fruit resembling it in external appearances and name. It is used extensively in the manufacture of preserves and marmalades which are so similar in composition as not to be distinguished from each other by their chemical analyses.

The compositions of a preserve known as mamey en almibar and a marmalade known as mermelade de mamey are shown in the following table: