Foods and Their Adulteration / Origin, Manufacture, and Composition of Food Products; Description of Common Adulterations, Food Standards, and National Food Laws and Regulations

Adulteration of Canned Ham and Bacon.

—From the above data it is seen that the products are probably true to name, and are actually ham and bacon. The principal adulterations which are found in these articles are preservatives and coloring matters. The coloring matter usually found is saltpeter which, in one instance, was present in quantities of one-tenth of one percent and the average quantity found was one-twentieth of one percent. Saltpeter is not used as a preservative, although it is often claimed by packers that such is the case. In the minute quantities in which it is employed it has little or no effect as a preservative if, indeed, it could be deemed a germicidal substance. The principal preservative which is found is boric acid. In fourteen cases examined, however, only two contained this preservative, which shows that there is no necessity for its use on any occasion. Under the new meat inspection law all meat products prepared for interstate and foreign commerce are packed under direct supervision of the Department of Agriculture, and contain no harmful color and no chemical preservative.

Canned Tongue.

—Several varieties of canned tongue are found upon the market known as ox tongue, lamb tongue, luncheon tongue, etc. The tongues of calves, steers, sheep, lambs, and swine are the ones which are usually canned, and they may be previously pickled before canning. The average composition of the canned tongue upon the market is shown from the following data based upon the examination of seventeen samples:

The data show that in the canning of tongue a large quantity of fat is present, more than the true part of the tongue contains. Nearly all of the samples examined contained saltpeter, the largest quantity found being .15 percent.

Adulteration of Canned Tongue.

—It is not probable that any meat, except the tongue itself, is used for canning, but the contents may not be true to name. The fat dressing employed is not specified, and probably its character and amount rest alone with the ideas of the manufacturer relative thereto. Presumably the fat should be of the same animal as the tongue. A critical examination of the fat will, however, reveal whether or not this is the case.

Saltpeter is the most common adulteration, and is used solely to impart or preserve the red color of the fresh meat. Boric acid is also occasionally employed. One of the samples contained boric acid.

Without inspection of the process of manufacture, it is not possible to be assured of the sanitary conditions of the meats which are sold as canned tongue and also of the sanitary conditions of the canning itself. These are all matters of the highest importance to the consumer, and should be attested by proper inspection certificates. Under the new meat law only the proper articles can be certified by the officials in charge of inspection.

Examination of Fat as a Test for Adulterations.

—It is evident, from what has already been said, that the character of the fats which are used in the canning of preserved meats is not always the same as that of the meat to which they are added. A careful study has been made in the Bureau of Chemistry of the fats extracted from different canned meats. The chemical and physical characteristics of these fats are given in the following table:

It has been noticed that the crystals deposited by the evaporation of the ether solution of chicken fat resemble beef stearin in shape, but are much smaller and more delicate. It is seen that the melting point of fat in ham and bacon is rather lower than in leaf lard. It is evident, therefore, that this fat is not lard or, at least, not wholly composed of the best lard, but probably consists of the fat not usually employed for lard making.

Potted Meats.

—There is found on the market a large number of varieties of potted meat. It is difficult to describe in any scientific way these potted meats because the term “potted” is employed by all manufacturers to describe a mixture of a great many different articles, the exact composition of which is usually a trade secret. There is, apparently, an understanding among manufacturers that the labels of potted goods are not intended in any way to indicate the variety of meat or principal meats contained in the package. In the absence of any trade, sanitary, or chemical standard it is difficult to make any just criticism of the character of the potted goods upon the market.

The principal object of mentioning them here is to inform the consumer of the probable character of the potted goods which he may consume, and to let him understand that it is by no means certain that the name of the meat upon the label describes the character of the meat which he is actually eating. The chief object in the manufacture of potted meat is to make a supply of uniform character and consistency, and properly spiced and flavored to attract and hold the patronage of the consumer.

A certain degree of consistency is established by each manufacturer for each variety of potted goods made, and to obtain this consistence more or less fat meat of some kind is added. It may thus be of some advantage to add the fat of pork rather than the fat of beef or mixtures of the two. It is claimed by many manufacturers that a single kind of meat does not give the desired flavor in potted and deviled goods. Therefore, meats of different origin are finely ground and mixed together, and a sufficient quantity of oil or fat added to secure the required physical consistence. For this reason cured meats, such as beef and pork, are often preferred for making potted and deviled meats because of the agreeable flavor and aroma which they impart thereto. These meats are therefore used in potting, although they cost more than corresponding quantities of fresh meat. In a character of goods so variegated as these it is impossible to lay down any rule which may guide the consumer in his choice. The widest latitude is left to the manufacturer, and the only real protection is in a strict inspection of the factory or factories where such goods are made. It is there only that the character of the materials employed and the quality of the condiments or other substances added can be determined. The day is doubtless rapidly approaching when consumers will be perfectly protected in this matter, and when no canned, potted, or deviled meats of any description will be allowed to enter into commerce without bearing the certificate of competent inspection officers as to the kind of meats used, their sanitary character, etc.

Potted meats should always be carefully sterilized and the contents of the tins should be consumed as soon as possible after they are opened.

Potted Beef.

—Potted beef, more than any other product bearing the label of potted, corresponds more closely to the character of the meat named on its label. Of four samples of commercially potted beef examined in the Bureau of Chemistry only one appeared to contain any other meat than beef. The composition of the potted beef is shown in the table on page 53.

Adulteration of Potted Beef.

—From the average data given above it is seen that the principal adulteration in potted beef, assuming that the meat is beef, is starch. Two of the four samples contained starch, one more than 14 percent and one more than 11 percent. The admixture of starch is evidently solely for fraudulent purposes, to increase the weight and bulk with a very much cheaper substance and one for which no necessity for the addition can be claimed. It also increases the quantity of water which the product will carry. Saltpeter was found in one of the four samples and boric acid in two. One of the samples contained a large quantity of tin, due probably to the action of the potted meat upon the tin lining of the can.

Potted Deviled Meats.

—The term “deviled meat” is applied to a mixture of finely ground meat with spices, condiments, and other substances, and, like the term “potted,” is used rather to indicate a miscellaneous mixture than any single compound.

All that has been said respecting the composition of potted meat applies with equal force to deviled meat. If there be any difference at all it is understood by the term deviled that the spices and condiments are more pronounced in character and greater in quantity and the miscellaneous character of the goods more pronounced. Under the terms of “deviled” and “potted” may be found every kind of mixed and miscellaneous finely comminuted meat, flavored with all kinds of condimental substances and prepared so as to appeal as strongly as possible to the taste and desire of the consumer.

COMPOSITION OF POTTED BEEF.

It may be said, in connection with these goods, that there is no objection whatever to their manufacture and sale provided the meat used in their preparation is sound and sanitary, the conditions of manufacture clean and free of infection, and provided the fraudulent additions for the purpose of increasing bulk and weight are excluded, together with injurious preservatives and coloring matters, such as borax, saltpeter, sulfite of soda, etc.

Potted and deviled are not the only terms, however, which are used to express miscellaneous mixtures of meat products. The term “pâtés” is also employed for a large class of goods, among which the principal ones are the familiar pâté de foie gras, which should be made largely of fatty goose livers.

Composition of Pâtés.

—The result of the examination of large quantities of pâtés in the Bureau of Chemistry indicates that they are made up principally of the meat of beef and pork. It is not quite certain in any case that the highly prized livers of fat geese have been employed at all to any considerable extent. There are no forms of comminuted meats of any description which are so objectionable in name as those that are sold under the name of pâtés, especially when they are ascribed to a particular composition, as is the case with pâté de foie gras. As has been remarked before, there is certainly no objection to the manufacture of these mixtures, but misleading statements concerning them are to be condemned. The manufacturer and consumer of pâté de foie gras should establish some standard of the percentage of goose livers which they should contain, and each package should be accompanied by an official certification that it has been inspected and found to be up to the standard. It is only in this way that the public can be protected against fraud and imposition. Where no descriptive word at all is used with the word pâté there is no reasonable limit to be placed upon the kind of meat used, provided it is of a sound and sanitary character. The term pâté itself means a mixture and, therefore, it is no deception and imposition upon the public to sell a pâté of a miscellaneous character, provided it does not bear any false statement regarding origin or character.

The mean composition of forty-three samples of pâtés and purées is found in the following data:

From the above data it is seen that the pâtés are characterized by a very high percentage of fat and a correspondingly low percentage of protein. A very large majority of the samples examined contained starch, the highest quantity found being 15.80 percent. Only two of the samples were found to contain saltpeter; six contained boric acid and three benzoic acid. Tin and zinc were found in a few cases.

Principal Adulterations of Mixed, Miscellaneous, Potted, Deviled, and Comminuted Meats.

—As has been observed in the analyses of the commercial articles which have been submitted it is evident that no detection of the adulteration of these minced meats with impure fragmentary, diseased, or unwholesome articles is possible in so far as chemical analysis is concerned. A microscopic analysis also often fails to reveal the true character of the meats which have been used in the preparation of these bodies. Hence the adulteration of these bodies with diseased, unwholesome, unfit, and unsanitary meats cannot be controlled nor even positively affirmed after the meats are prepared and canned. Such adulterations are doubtless frequent and are the most objectionable. The only protection to the consumer is in a certificate of inspection before preparation and packing. The consumer, by refusing to purchase such comminuted meats in the absence of such a certificate, would soon compel the manufacturer to secure official inspection and certification of his products.

Adulteration with Starch.

—One of the chief adulterants in sausages and prepared meats is starch. It has been said by some hygienists that starch is not an objectionable adulterant on hygienic grounds. This, however, is not strictly true. The injection of large quantities of starch into meat tends to unbalance a ration which is fixed with certain quantities of other food and tends to increase the proportion of starchy matter therein. There are many conditions of disordered digestion in which such increases of starch, unknown to the physician or patient or even known, are highly objectionable. Hence the use of starch as an adulterant in meat of this kind is reprehensible on hygienic grounds. The principal purpose for using starch is deception. Starch increases the bulk and weight of goods, and, in the process of cooking, prevents undue shrinkage. The consumer, therefore, thinks that he has secured a larger quantity and better quality of meat than he really has, and is, to this extent, defrauded and deceived.

Preservatives.

—The preservatives which are principally used in meat are borax, boric acid, sulfite of soda, and benzoic acid. All of these preservatives have been shown, by researches in the Bureau of Chemistry, to be deleterious to health. They should be rigidly excluded from all meat as well as other food products.

Coloring Matter.

—Dyes are frequently used for coloring sausage and other minced meats. All such dyeing materials are reprehensible, both on account of the danger to health and deception. Preserved meats gradually lose the natural red tint of the fresh meat, and to that extent the color is an index of the time during which they have been preserved. Inasmuch as consumers prefer fresh meats preserved as short a time as possible, they are deceived and to that extent injured by the use of dyestuffs which impart to preserved meats a fresh appearance.

Indirect Coloring Matter.

—Certain chemicals, which of themselves have no color, serve to fix and hold, or even accentuate, the natural color of meat. The two principal chemicals used for this purpose are saltpeter and sulfite of soda. Saltpeter is used generally in preserved meats to retain and accentuate the red color thereof. Sulfite of soda is used principally on fresh meats, where it acts both as a preservative and as a retainer of color. Sprinkled over the freshly cut surface of fresh meat, sulfite of soda preserves the red tint, and the customer thinks it has just been cut. In this way he is deceived. Both of these substances are highly objectionable not only on account of deception but on account of being injurious to health. In the case of saltpeter, the general opinion concerning its therapeutic action is that it is not a proper substance to mix with foods. It would be highly desirable on the part of the packer, if he deemed it necessary to use bodies of this kind, to plainly state upon each package the character and quantity of preservatives and coloring matter employed. The consumer is then left to judge for himself whether or not he desires to eat these bodies.

The principal objection to notifications of this kind is that the consumer, not being an expert as a rule, cannot form any intelligent opinion respecting the desirability of these substances in food. He is more apt to be guided by common practice in this matter and by his own opinion than by any general principles of chemistry and hygiene.

Potted Tongue.

—The term “potted tongue” may apply equally to tongue of a single character, such as beef, lamb, pork, or swine, or the mixture thereof. The examinations which have been made of the potted tongues of commerce do not indicate whether they are of a single character or whether the tongues are derived from a variety of sources. The mean composition of twenty-one samples bought in the open market, as found in the Bureau of Chemistry, is given in the following table:

Adulteration of Potted Tongue.

—In the samples examined above starch was found in four cases, the largest amount being 11.6 percent. Saltpeter was found in eighteen cases, the largest amount being .06 percent. Tin was present in thirteen cases and zinc in eight cases. Boric acid was found in fourteen cases.

From the above it is evident that the principal adulterations in potted tongue, aside from the use of meats which are not tongue, and which chemical analysis cannot disclose, are the addition of starch, saltpeter, tin, and zinc, the two latter derived either from the solder or from the can in which the goods are placed.

Canned Poultry.

—Other fresh meats, in addition to beef and pork, are canned in a fresh state. In the case of poultry the fowls are dressed and drawn and the whole carcass boiled until the meat is sufficiently cooked to facilitate the separation from the bones. The bones are then removed and the meat is canned and sterilized by practically the same method as practiced with canned beef. Game and wild fowl meats are also subjected to the same process of canning as the domesticated chickens, geese, ducks, turkeys, etc. In general it may be said that there are no differences in the processes employed, but the important question to the consumer is the character of the raw materials used, the sanitary conditions which attended their preparation, and their freedom from admixtures of other meats cheaper in price and of different dietetic values.

Adulteration of Canned Fresh Meat.

—Fortunately the process of sterilization is of such a character, when properly carried out, as to exclude all necessity for the addition of any preservative substances to canned fresh meat. The use of ordinary condimental substances in moderate quantities cannot be regarded as an adulteration. Hence, the addition of small quantities of salt, sugar, vinegar, and the ordinary spices, when used solely for the improvement of the taste and flavor and not for preservative purposes, is regarded as unobjectionable.

The common preservatives used in canned meat are, first, those which give color to the meat and preserve its natural red tint. For this purpose saltpeter and sulfite of soda are most commonly employed. Red dyes of any description are rarely, if ever, found. The preservative which is used most frequently in canned meat is borax or boric acid. That this use is not necessary is evident from the investigations which have been made in the Bureau of Chemistry which show that in most cases no preservatives at all are used. The addition of any chemical preservative is, therefore, to be regarded as unnecessary and as an adulteration.

The use of any diseased, tainted, decomposed, or filthy meat, even if it is of the same origin as that in the can, is an adulteration of the most serious character and which can only be effectually controlled by the inspection mentioned above. The adulteration of the meat of fowls of all descriptions by cheaper meats, such as pork or veal, even if they be of wholesome and sound character, is an adulteration said to be often practiced and one which it is difficult to detect if the particles of meat are finely comminuted.

Standard for Preserved Meats.

—The standard for preserved meat is the same as that for fresh meat which is given in the Appendix (Circular 19, Office of Secretary, Department of Agriculture). The meat must be sound, wholesome, clean, freshly taken from the slaughtered animal, and not one that has died from disease, suffocation, or otherwise, and must conform in name and character to the meat of the animal.

Frequency of Adulteration.

—The examination made of numerous samples of canned meat in the Bureau of Chemistry shows that the adulteration of these foods is rather common but by no means general.

Canned Horse Meat.

—Horse meat is commonly used for human food in many European countries, although it is believed that it is not used to any extent in the United States. When procured from healthy animals in a proper way there is no hygienic objection to its use, though it is considered to be somewhat tougher than the flesh of other animals more commonly employed as food, but that is probably due to the fact that horses are not raised for food purposes and are usually not used for such until they are worn out in domestic service. There are many sentimental and often religious objections to the use of horse meat, but experience has shown that it is wholesome and nutritious. Horse meat is characteristic in containing more natural sugar, commonly known as glycogen, than any of the other ordinary meats used for human consumption. It approaches in its content of sugar some of the shell-fish flesh, such as that of the lobster. Practically all of the horse meat which is prepared in this country is exported to Europe. There are cases, however, on record of the sale of horse flesh to domestic consumers. Especially could it be used in this way in the form of sausage or other finely comminuted products without much danger of detection.

Composition of Horse Meat.

—A number of samples of horse meat of undoubted origin and wholesomeness have been examined in the Bureau of Chemistry and the data tabulated. The average composition of sixteen samples of horse meat, representing different parts of the carcass, is shown in the following table:

Composition of Dry Material—

The high percentage of glycogen in horse meat is one of the safest methods of determining its character when comminuted or cut up into pieces so small as not to be identified by the usual anatomical characteristics. Very few other kinds of edible flesh contain as much as one percent of glycogen. Glycogen is a transitory product which tends naturally to be broken up into other substances, and, hence, even in horse meat after slaughter, it may rapidly disappear and thus, unless the meat is examined at once, very little glycogen may be found in it. A safer test for horse meat is in the nature of the fat therein. This fat does not tend to change as the glycogen does, and, therefore, in a pure preparation of horse meat even in a finely comminuted state the separation and examination of the fat will lead to a determination of the character of meat employed. The fats of horse meat have a lower melting point, a higher iodin number, and a higher heat value when mixed with sulfuric acid than those of beef.

Indeed, these differences are so marked as to afford a ready means of detection to the practical chemist. Even in the mixture of horse meat with other meat the variation in the character of the fats will be such as to lead to a correct judgment respecting the approximate amount of horse meat which has been used, provided it forms any notable amount of the mixture.

Canned Cured Meats.

—Sterilization is such a certain method of preventing the decay of meats that it has now come into use to a large extent in the final preservation of shipments of cured meats. The object of curing, as has already been stated, is not merely to prevent the meat from decaying, nor is it intended to inhibit entirely enzymic action. On the contrary, if the method of curing were such as to entirely stop fermentative action, the flavors and aromas of preserved meats, upon which their value so much depends, would be eliminated, and we would simply have a mass of tasteless meat, preserved from decay by the application of chemical preservatives of a character to impart neither flavor nor aroma to the meat and at the same time prevent the activity of the various ferments above described. Such methods of preparation, naturally, should never be of general use, because in cured meats the consumer demands the flavor which naturally proceeds from the ordinary method of curing. After curing and when subjected to transportation the meats may undergo decomposition and reach their destination in a spoiled state. To avoid this it has been a customary practice to pack the meat in a chemical preservative, such as borax. This is, however, a very objectionable practice because even in the cured state the meat is still absorptive, and the borax, which is packed externally upon it, as a precaution during transit, must necessarily penetrate to a certain extent to the interior of the meat. By packing cured meat in tins and subjecting these tins to sterilization complete immunity from decay may be secured and there is no damage done to the aroma or flavor. We, therefore, find upon the market at the present time in tinned, canned, or potted form almost every variety of meat that is used either in a fresh state or after the usual method of curing.

Canned Sausage.

—One of the most important of cured meats which is offered for sale is sausage. Sausage may be canned either in the fresh or cured state and, of course, may be adulterated in both conditions. Canned sausage should have a clean bill of health from the local inspector the same as any other meat food.

There is, perhaps, more room for deception in the manufacture of sausage than in almost any other form of comminuted meat. When properly treated with condimental substances, such as salt, spices, vinegar, etc., sausages are highly prized as a food product, and justly so. In the canned state sausage should undergo no other manipulation than spicing and sterilization at a temperature necessary to kill all fermentative germs and prevent decay.

Composition of Canned Sausage.

—Twenty-five samples of canned sausage examined in the Bureau of Chemistry had the following average composition:

The above data show that canned sausage differs from fresh meat largely in its composition, especially in the much higher content of fat and lower content of water which is found therein.

Adulteration of Canned Sausage.

—The principal adulteration, as has already been stated, is in the admixture of meats of unknown and miscellaneous origin and possibly inedible in character. The degree of comminution to which sausage is subjected renders it difficult in the inspection of sausage itself to determine the character of the animal from which it is made. The study of the fat is the most useful guide in such cases. Presumably sausage is made almost exclusively of beef and pork, but, as a matter of fact, much which is not eaten under its own name may be found in sausage.

Next to the introduction of meat of an improper character the most important adulteration is the common use of starch. Starch is very much cheaper than meat, and its abundant use enables a greater profit to be made. It is highly esteemed, also, as a “filler,” on the ground that it prevents the shrinkage of sausage when fried. Starch granules under the influence of heat are gelatinous, holding moisture with tenacity and preventing shrinkage in bulk.

The presence of starch in sausage must be regarded as an unjustifiable adulteration unless the amount therein is plainly marked on the label of the package.

The use of preservatives in the curing of sausage is a very common practice and, hence, canned sausages are found to often contain boric acid or borax and sulfite of soda especially. Dyes of various kinds are also used in coloring sausage or its covering, largely of a coal tar origin.

The proper safeguard for the consumer in regard to the character of sausage is in the inspection of the factory. It is highly important that each municipality and state should have a rigid system for the inspection of sausage, and the sausage thus inspected should bear the certification of the kind of meat used and its general character. The presence of inspectors in factories would prevent the use of preservatives which, it has been shown by the researches of the Bureau of Chemistry, are prejudicial to health.

Magnitude of the Meat Industry.

—According to the census of 1905, showing the results of the tabulation of the statistics of slaughtering and meat packing and slaughtering, wholesale, for the calendar year 1904, forming a part of the census of manufactures of 1905, which was taken in conformity with the act of Congress of March 6, 1902, the figures indicate that there has been a normal increase in the slaughtering and meat packing industry in the United States, as compared with the statistics of 1900, which covered the fiscal year ending May 31st.

Comparative figures for 1905 and 1900 are shown in the following summary: