LESSON 22.
ADJECTIVES.
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—You are now prepared to consider the fourth part of speech. Those words that are added to the subject to modify its meaning are called +Adjectives+.
Some grammarians have formed a separate class of the little words the, and an or a, calling them articles.
I will write the word boys on the board, and you may name adjectives that will appropriately modify it. As you give them, I will write these adjectives in a column.
Adjectives.
small | large | white | black | straight + boys. crooked | five | some | all |
What words here modify boys by adding the idea of size? What by adding the idea of color? What by adding the idea of form? What by adding the idea of number? What are such words called? Why?
Let the teacher name familiar objects and require the pupils to join appropriate adjectives to the names till their stock is exhausted.
+DEFINITION.—An Adjective is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun+.
Analysis and Parsing.
+Model+.—A fearful storm was raging. Diagram and analyze as in Lesson 20.
+Written Parsing+.
Nouns. | Pronouns. | Adjectives. | Verbs. storm | —— | A fearful | was raging.
+Oral Parsing+.—A is an adjective, because it is joined to the noun storm, to modify its meaning; fearful is an adjective, because ———; storm is a noun, because ———; was raging is a verb, because ——-.
1. The rosy morn advances. 2. The humble boon was obtained. 3. An unyielding firmness was displayed. 4. The whole earth smiles. 5. Several subsequent voyages were made. 6. That burly mastiff must be secured. 7. The slender greyhound was released. 8. The cold November rain is falling. 9. That valuable English watch has been sold. 10. I alone have escaped. 11. Both positions can be defended. 12. All such discussions should have been avoided. 13. That dilapidated old wooden building has fallen.
+To the Teacher+.—See Notes, pp. 169, 170.
LESSON 23.
SENTENCE-BUILDING.
Prefix five adjectives to each of the following nouns.
Shrubs, wilderness, beggar, cattle, cloud.
Write ten sentences with modified subjects, using in each two or more of the following adjectives.
A, an, the, heroic, one, all, many, every, either, first, tenth, frugal, great, good, wise, honest, immense, square, circular, oblong, oval, mild, virtuous, universal, sweet, careless, fragrant.
Write five sentences with modified subjects, each of which shall contain one of the following words as a subject.
Chimney, hay, coach, robber, horizon.
An and a are forms of the same word, once spelled an, and meaning one. After losing something of this force, an was still used before vowels and consonants alike; as, an eagle, an ball, an hair, an use. Still later, and for the sake of ease in speaking, the word came to have the two forms mentioned above; and an was retained before letters having vowel sounds, but it dropped its n and became a before letters having consonant sounds. This is the present usage.
CORRECT THESE ERRORS.
A apple; a obedient child; an brickbat; an busy boy.
CORRECT THESE ERRORS.
A heir; a hour; a honor.
Notice, the first letter of these words is silent.
CORRECT THESE ERRORS.
An unit; an utensil; an university; an ewe; an ewer; an union; an use; an history; an one.
Unit begins with the sound of the consonant y; and one, with that of w.
+To the Teacher+.—See "Suggestions for COMPOSITION EXERCISES," p. 8, last paragraph.
LESSON 24.
MODIFIED PREDICATES.
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—I will now show you how the predicate of a sentence may be modified.
The ship sails gracefully. What word is here joined to sails to tell the manner of sailing? +P+.—Gracefully.
+T+.—The ship sails immediately. What word is here joined to sails to tell the time of sailing? +P+.—Immediately.
+T+.—The, ship sails homeward. What word is here joined to sails to tell the direction of sailing? +P+.—Homeward.
+T+.—These words gracefully, immediately, and homeward are modifiers of the predicate. In the first sentence, sails gracefully is the +Modified Predicate+.
Let the following modifiers be written on the board as the pupil suggests them.
| instantly.
| soon.
| daily.
| hither.
The ship sails + hence.
| there.
| rapidly.
| smoothly.
| well.
Which words indicate the time of sailing? Which, the place? Which, the manner?
The teacher may suggest predicates, and require the pupils to find as many appropriate modifiers as they can.
The Predicate with its modifiers is called the +Modified Predicate+.
Analysis and Parsing.
Analyze and diagram the following sentences, and parse the nouns, pronouns, verbs, and adjectives.
+Model+.—The letters were rudely carved.
letters | were carved
=========|===============
\The | \rudely
+Written Parsing+.—See Model, Lesson 22.
+Oral Analysis+.—This is a sentence, because——; letters is the subject, because——; were carved is the predicate, because——; The is a modifier of the subject, because——; rudely is a modifier of the predicate, because——; The letters is the modified subject, were rudely carved is the modified predicate.
1. He spoke eloquently. 2. She chattered incessantly. 3. They searched everywhere. 4. I shall know presently. 5. The bobolink sings joyously. 6. The crowd cheered heartily. 7. A great victory was finally won. 8. Threatening clouds are moving slowly. 9. The deafening waves dash angrily. 10. These questions may be settled peaceably. 11. The wounded soldier fought bravely. 12. The ranks were quickly broken. 13. The south wind blows softly. 14. Times will surely change. 15. An hour stole on.
LESSON 25.
ANALYSIS AND PARSING.
ONE MODIFIER JOINED TO ANOTHER.
Analyze and diagram the following sentences, and parse the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs.
+Model+.—The frightened animal fled still more rapidly.
animal | fled
===================|=====================
\The \frightened | \rapidly
\more
\still
+Explanation of the Diagram+.—Notice that the three lines forming this group all slant the same way to show that each stands for a modifying word. The line standing for the principal word of the group is joined to the predicate line. The end of each of the other two lines is broken, and turned to touch its principal at an angle.
+Oral Analysis+.—This is a sentence, because——; animal is the subject, because——; fled is the predicate, because——; The and frightened are modifiers of the subject, because——; still more rapidly is a modifier of the predicate, because it is a group of words joined to it to limit its meaning; rapidly is the principal word of the group; more modifies rapidly, and still modifies more, The frightened animal is the modified subject; fled still more rapidly is the modified predicate.
1. The crocus flowers very early. 2. A violet bed is budding near. 3. The Quakers were most shamefully persecuted. 4. Perhaps he will return. 5. We laughed very heartily. 6. The yellow poplar leaves floated down. 7. The wind sighs so mournfully. 8. Few men have ever fought so stubbornly. 9. The debt will probably be paid. 10. The visitor will soon be here. 11. That humane project was quite generously sustained. 12. A perfectly innocent man was very cruelly persecuted.
REVIEW QUESTIONS.
What is an adjective? What are the words an or a, and the called by some grammarians? When is a used, and when an? Give examples of their misuse.
What is the modified predicate? Give an example. Give an example of one modifier joined to another.
LESSON 26.
Select your subjects from Lesson 9, and construct twenty sentences having modified subjects and modified predicates.
Impromptu Exercise.
Select sentences from Lessons 6, 7, and 11, and conduct the exercise as directed in Lesson 10. Let the strife be to see who can supply the greatest number of modifiers to the subject and to the predicate. The teacher can vary this exercise.
LESSON 27.
ADVERBS.
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—You have learned, in the preceding Lessons, that the meaning of the predicate may be limited by modifiers, and that one modifier may be joined to another. Words used to modify the predicate of a sentence and those used to modify modifiers belong to one class, or one part of speech, and are called +Adverbs+.
+T+.—She decided too hastily. What word tells how she decided?
+P+.—-Hastily. +T+.—What word tells how hastily? +P+.—Too.
+T+.—What then are the words too and hastily? +P+.—Adverbs.
+T+.—Too much time has been wasted. What word modifies much by telling how much? +P+.—Too. +T+.—What part of speech is much? +P+.—An adjective. +T+.—What then is too? +P+.—An adverb.
+T+.—Why is too in the first sentence an adverb? Why is too in the second sentence an adverb? Why is hastily an adverb?
Let the teacher use the following and similar examples, and continue the questions. He thinks so. So much time has been wasted.
Let the teacher give verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, and require the pupils to modify them by appropriate adverbs.
+DEFINITION.—An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb+.
Analysis and Parsing.
Analyze, diagram, and parse the following sentences.
+Model+.—We have been very agreeably disappointed. +Diagram+ as in.
Lesson 25.
For +Written Parsing+, use Model, Lesson 22, adding a column for adverbs.
+Oral Parsing+.—We is a pronoun, because——; have been disappointed is a verb, because——; very is an adverb, because it is joined to the adverb agreeably to tell how agreeably; agreeably is an adverb, because it is joined to the verb have been disappointed to indicate manner.
1. The plough-boy plods homeward. 2. The water gushed forth. 3. Too much time was wasted. 4. She decided too hastily. 5. You should listen more attentively. 6. More difficult sentences must be built. 7. An intensely painful operation was performed. 8. The patient suffered intensely. 9. That story was peculiarly told. 10. A peculiarly interesting story was told. 11. An extravagantly high price was paid. 12. That lady dresses extravagantly.
The pupil will notice that, in some of the examples above, the same adverb modifies an adjective in one sentence and an adverb in another, and that, in other examples, an adjective and a verb are modified by the same word. You may learn from this why such modifiers are grouped into one class.
LESSON 28.
ANALYSIS AND PARSING.
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES FOR REVIEW.
1. You must diagram neatly. 2. The sheaves are nearly gathered. 3. The wheat is duly garnered. 4. The fairies were called together. 5. The birds chirp merrily. 6. This reckless adventurer has returned. 7. The wild woods rang. 8. White fleecy clouds are floating above. 9. Those severe laws have been repealed. 10. A republican government was established. 11. An unusually large crop had just been harvested. 12. She had been waiting quite patiently. 13. A season so extremely warm had never before been known. 14. So brave a deed [Footnote: Can be commended is the verb, and not is an adverb.] cannot be too warmly commended.
LESSON 29.
SENTENCE-BUILDING.
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES FOR REVIEW.
Build sentences containing the following adverbs.
Hurriedly, solemnly, lightly, well, how, somewhere, abroad, forever, seldom, exceedingly.
Using the following subjects and predicates as foundations, build six sentences having modified subjects and modified predicates, two of which shall contain adverbs modifying adjectives; two, adverbs modifying adverbs; and two, adverbs modifying verbs.
1. ———- boat glides ——-. 2. ———- cloud is rising ——-. 3. ———- breezes are blowing ——-. 4. ———- elephant was captured ——-. 5. ———- streams flow ——-. 6. ———- spring has opened ——-.
We here give you, in classes, the material out of which you are to build five sentences with modified subjects and modified predicates.
Select the subject and the predicate first.
Nouns and Pronouns. Verbs. Adjectives. Adverbs.
branch | was running | large, that | lustily coach | were played | both, the | downward they | cried | all, an | very we | is growing | several, a | rapidly games | cheered | amusing | not, loudly, then
LESSON 30.
ERRORS FOR CORRECTION.
+To the Teacher+.—We here suggest additional work in composition, with particular reference to the choice and position of adjectives. See Notes, pp. 171,172.
+Caution+.—When two or more adjectives are used with a noun, care must be taken in their arrangement. If there is any difference in their relative importance, place nearest the noun the one that is most intimately connected with it.
+To the Teacher+.—We have in mind here those numerous cases where one adjective modifies the noun, and the second modifies the noun as limited by the first. All ripe apples are picked. Here ripe modifies apples, but all modifies apples limited by ripe. Not all apples are picked, but only all that are ripe.
CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS OF POSITION.
A wooden pretty bowl stood on the table.
The blue beautiful sky is cloudless.
A young industrious man was hired.
The new marble large house was sold.
+Caution+.—When the adjectives are of the same rank, place them where they will sound the best. This will usually be in the order of their length—the longest last.
CORRECT THESE ERRORS.
An entertaining and fluent speaker followed.
An enthusiastic, noisy, large crowd was addressed.
+Caution+.—Do not use the pronoun +them+ for the adjective +those+.
CORRECT THESE ERRORS.
Them books are nicely bound.
Them two sentences should be corrected.
CORRECT THE FOLLOWING MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS.
arouse, o romans
hear, o israel
it is i
i may be Mistaken
you Have frequently been warned
some Very savage beasts have been Tamed
REVIEW QUESTIONS.
What is an adverb? Give an example of an adverb modifying an adjective; one modifying a verb; one modifying an adverb. Why are such expressions as a wooden pretty bowl faulty? Why is an enthusiastic, noisy, large crowd faulty? Why is them books wrong? Why is i may be Mistaken wrong? Why is hear, o israel, wrong? Study the Review Questions given in previous Lessons.
+To the Teacher+.—See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement—Selection from Darwin.
LESSON 31.
PHRASES INTRODUCED BY PREPOSITIONS.
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—In the preceding Lessons, you have learned that several words may be grouped together and used as one modifier. In the examples given, the principal word is joined directly to the subject or to the predicate, and this word is modified by another word. In this Lesson also groups of words are used as modifiers, but these words are not united with one another, or with the word which the group modifies, just as they are in the preceding Lessons. I will write on the board this sentence: De Soto marched into Florida. +T+.—What tells where De Soto marched? +P+.—Into Florida. +T+.—What is the principal word of the group? +P+.—Florida. +T+.—Is Florida joined directly to the predicate, as rapidly was in Lesson 25? +P+.—No. +T+.—What little word comes in to unite the modifier to marched? +P+.—Into. +T+.—Does Florida alone, tell where he marched? +P+.—No. +T+.—Does into alone, tell where he marched? +P+.—No.
+T+.—These groups of related words are called +Phrases+. Let the teacher draw on the board the diagram of the sentence above.
Phrases of the form illustrated in this diagram are the most common, and they perform a very important function in our language.
Let the teacher frequently call attention to the fact that all the words of a phrase are taken together to perform one distinct office.
A phrase modifying the subject is equivalent to an adjective, and, frequently, may be changed into one. The dew of the morning has passed away. What word may be used for the phrase of the morning? +P+.—Morning. +T+.—Yes. The morning dew has passed away.
A phrase modifying the predicate is equivalent to an adverb, and, frequently, may be changed into one. We shall go to that place. What word may be used for the phrase, to that place? +P+.—There. +T+.—Yes. We shall go there.
Change the phrases in these sentences:—-
_A citizen of America was insulted.
We walked toward home_.
Let the teacher write on the board the following words, and require the pupils to add to each, one or more words to complete a phrase, and then to construct a sentence in which the phrase may be properly employed: To, from, by, at, on, with, in, into, over.
+DEFINITION.—A Phrase is a group of words denoting related ideas but not expressing a thought+.
Analysis and Parsing.
Analyze the following sentences, and parse the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs.
Model.—The finest trout in the lake are generally caught in the deepest water.
trout | are caught
================|================
\The \finest \in \generally \in
\ \
\ lake \ water
——— —————
\the \the \deepest
+Explanation of the Diagram+.—You will notice that the diagram of the phrase is made up of a slanting line, standing for the introductory and connecting word, and a horizontal line, representing the principal word. Under the latter, are placed the little slanting lines standing for the modifiers of the principal word. Here and elsewhere all modifiers are joined to their principal words by slanting lines.
+Oral Analysis+.—This is a sentence, because ———; trout is the subject, because ——-; are caught is the predicate, because ———; the words The and finest, and the phrase, in the lake, are modifiers of the subject, because ——-; the word generally and the phrase, in the deepest water, are modifiers of the predicate, because ———; in introduces the first phrase, and lake is the principal word; in introduces the second phrase, and water is the principal word; the and deepest are modifiers of water; The finest trout in the lake is the modified subject, and are generally caught in the deepest water is the modified predicate.
1. The gorilla lives in Africa. 2. It seldom rains in Egypt. 3. The Pilgrims landed at Plymouth. 4. The wet grass sparkled in the light. 5. The little brook ran swiftly under the bridge. 6. Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga. 7. The steeples of the village pierced through the dense fog. 8. The gloom of winter settled down on everything. 9. A gentle breeze blows from the south. 10. The temple of Solomon was destroyed. 11. The top of the mountain is covered with snow. 12. The second Continental Congress convened at Philadelphia.
LESSON 32.
SENTENCE-BUILDING.
Build sentences, employing the following phrases as modifiers.
To Europe, of oak, from Albany, at the station, through the fields, for vacation, among the Indians, of the United States.
Supply to the following predicates subjects modified by phrases.
—— is situated on the Thames. —— has arrived. —— was destroyed by an earthquake. —— was received. —— has just been completed. —— may be enjoyed.
Supply to the following subjects predicates modified by phrases.
Iron ——.
The trees ——.
Squirrels ——.
The Bible ——.
Sugar ——.
Cheese ——.
Paul ——.
Strawberries ——.
The mountain ——.
Write five sentences, each of which shall contain one or more phrases used as modifiers.
LESSON 33.
SENTENCE-BUILDING.
Re-write the following sentences, changing the italicized words into equivalent phrases.
+Model+.—A golden image was made.
An image of gold was made.
You will notice that the adjective golden was placed before the subject, but, when changed to a phrase, it followed the subject.
1. The book was carefully read. 2. The old soldiers fought courageously. 3. A group of children were strolling homeward. 4. No season of life should be spent idly. 5. The English ambassador has just arrived. 6. That generous act was liberally rewarded.
Change the following adjectives and adverbs into equivalent phrases, and employ the phrases in sentences of your own building.
Wooden, penniless, eastward, somewhere, here, evening, everywhere, yonder, joyfully, wintry.
Make a sentence out of the words in each line below.
Boat, waves, glides, the, the, over.
He, Sunday, church, goes, the, on, to.
Year, night, is dying, the, the, in.
Qualities, Charlemagne, vices, were alloyed, the, great, of, with.
Indians, America, intemperance, are thinned, the, out, of, by.
LESSON 34.
PREPOSITIONS.
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—In the preceding Lessons, the little words that were placed before nouns, thus forming phrases, belong to a, class of words called +Prepositions+. You noticed that these words, which you have now learned to call prepositions, served to introduce phrases. The preposition shows the relation of the idea expressed by the principal word of the phrase to that of the word which the phrase modifies. It serves also to connect these words.
In the sentence, The squirrel ran up a tree, what word shows the relation of the act of running, to the tree? Ans. Up.
Other words may be used to express different relations. Repeat, nine times, the sentence above given, supplying, in the place of up, each of the following prepositions: Around, behind, down, into, over, through, to, under, from.
Let this exercise be continued, using such sentences as, The man went into the house; The ship sailed toward the bay.
+DEFINITION.—A Preposition is a word that introduces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the word modified+.
+Analysis and Parsing+.
+Model+.—Flowers preach to us.
For +Analysis+ and +Diagram+, see Lesson 31.
For +Written Parsing+, see Lesson 22. Add the needed columns.
+Oral Parsing+.—Flowers is a noun, because——; preach is a verb, because——; to is a preposition, because it shows the relation, in sense, between us and preach; us is a pronoun, because it is used instead of the name of the speaker and the names of those for whom he speaks.
1. The golden lines of sunset glow. 2. A smiling landscape lay before us. 3. Columbus was born at Genoa. 4. The forces of Hannibal were routed by Scipio. 5. The capital of New York is on the Hudson. 6. The ships sail over the boisterous sea. 7. All names of the Deity should begin with capital letters. 8. Air is composed chiefly of two invisible gases. 9. The greater portion of South America lies between the tropics. 10. The laurels of the warrior must at all times be dyed in blood. 11. The first word of every entire sentence should begin with a capital letter. 12. The subject of a sentence is generally placed before the predicate.
Impromptu Exercise.
(The teacher may find it profitable to make a separate lesson of this exercise.)
Let the teacher write on the board a subject and a predicate that will admit of many modifiers. The pupils are to expand the sentence into as many separate sentences as possible, each containing one apt phrase modifier. The competition is to see who can build the most and the best sentences in a given time. The teacher gathers up the slates and reads the work aloud, or has the pupils exchange slates and read it themselves.
LESSON 35.
COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND PREDICATE.
When two or more subjects united by a connecting word have the same predicate, they form a +Compound Subject;+ and, when two or more predicates connected in like manner have the same subject, they form a +Compound Predicate+.
In the sentence, Birds and bees can fly, the two words birds and bees, connected by and, have the same predicate; the same action is asserted of both birds and bees. In the sentence, Leaves fade and fall, two assertions are made of the same things. In the first sentence, birds and bees form the compound subject; and, in the second, fade and fall form the compound predicate.
Analyze and parse the following sentences.
+Models+.—Napoleon rose, reigned, and fell.
Frogs, antelopes, and kangaroos can jump.
rose Frogs
,=,===== ======.=.
/ ' ' \
Napoleon| / X ' reigned antelopes ' X \ | can jump
========|==| '======== ==========' |==|=========
| \and' 'and/ |
\ ' fell kangaroos ' /
`-'====== =========='='
+Explanation of the Diagram+.—The short line following the subject line represents the entire predicate, and is supposed to be continued in the three horizontal lines that follow, each of which represents one of the parts of the compound predicate. These three lines are united by dotted lines, which stand for the connecting words. The +X+ denotes that an and is understood.
Study this explanation carefully, and you will understand the other diagram.
+Oral Analysis+ of the first sentence.
This is a sentence, because ——; Napoleon is the subject, because ——; rose, reigned, and fell form the compound predicate, because they belong in common to the same subject, and say something about Napoleon. And connects reigned and fell.
1. The Rhine and the Rhone rise in Switzerland. 2. Time and tide wait for no man. 3. Washington and Lafayette fought for American Independence. 4. Wild birds shrieked, and fluttered on the ground. 5. The mob raged and roared. 6. The seasons came and went. 7. Pride, poverty, and fashion cannot live in the same house. 8. The tables of stone were cast to the ground and broken. 9. Silver or gold will be received in payment. 10. Days, months, years, and ages will circle away.
REVIEW QUESTIONS.
What is a phrase? A phrase modifying a subject is equivalent to what?
Illustrate. A phrase modifying a predicate is equivalent to what?
Illustrate.
What are prepositions? What do you understand by a compound subject?
Illustrate. What do you understand by a compound predicate? Illustrate.
LESSON 36.
CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS.
The words and and or, used in the preceding Lesson to connect the nouns and the verbs, belong to a class of words called +Conjunctions+.
Conjunctions may also connect words used as modifiers; as,
A daring but foolish feat was performed.
They may connect phrases; as,
We shall go to Saratoga and to Niagara.
They may connect clauses, that is, expressions that, standing alone, would be sentences; as,
He must increase, but I must decrease.
+DEFINITION.—A Conjunction, is a word used to connect words, phrases, or clauses+.
The +Interjection+ is the eighth and last part of speech. Interjections are mere exclamations, and are without grammatical relation to any other word in the sentence.
+DEFINITION.—An Interjection is a word used to express strong or sudden feeling+.
Examples:—
Bravo! hurrah! pish! hush! ha, ha! alas! hail! lo! pshaw!
Analyze and parse the following sentences.
+Model+.—Hurrah! that cool and fearless fireman has rushed into the house and up the burning stairs.
Hurrah
———
fireman | has rushed
===================|=======================
\That\ and \ | \ and \
\…..\ \……..\
\ \ \ \up
\cool \fearless \into \stairs
\ —————
\house \the \burning
———
\the
+Explanation of the Diagram+.—The line representing the interjection is not connected with the diagram. Notice the dotted lines, one standing for the and which connects the two word modifiers; the other, for the and connecting the two phrase modifiers.
+Written Parsing+.
N. Pro. Adj. Vb. Adv. Prep. Conj. Int. | | | | | | | fireman | | the | has rushed | | into | and | hurrah house | | that | | | up | and | stairs | | cool | | | | | | | fearless | | | | | | | burning | | | | |
+Oral Parsing+ of the conjunction and the interjection.
The two ands are conjunctions, because they connect. The first connects two word modifiers; the second, two phrase modifiers. Hurrah is an interjection, because it expresses a burst of sudden feeling.
1. The small but courageous band was finally overpowered. 2. Lightning and electricity were identified by Franklin. 3. A complete success or an entire failure was anticipated. 4. Good men and bad men are found in all communities. 5. Vapors rise from the ocean and fall upon the land. 6. The Revolutionary war began at Lexington and ended at Yorktown. 7. Alas! all hope has fled. 8. Ah! I am surprised at the news. 9. Oh! we shall certainly drown. 10. Pshaw! you are dreaming. 11. Hurrah! the field is won.
LESSON 37.
PUNCTUATION AND CAPITAL LETTERS.
+COMMA—RULE.—Phrases that are placed out of their natural order [Footnote: A phrase in its natural order follows the word it modifies.] and made emphatic, or that are loosely connected with the rest of the sentence, should be set off by the comma+.
PUNCTUATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES.
+Model+.—The cable, after many failures, was successfully laid. Upon the platform 'twixt eleven and twelve I'll visit you. To me this place is endeared by many associations. Your answers with few exceptions have been correctly given. In English much depends on the placing of phrases.
+COMMA—RULE.—Words or phrases connected by conjunctions are separated from each other by the comma unless all the conjunctions are expressed+.
PUNCTUATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES.
+Model+.—Caesar came, saw, and conquered.
Caesar came and saw and conquered.
He travelled in England, in Scotland, and in Ireland.
(The comma is used in the first sentence, because a conjunction is omitted; but not in the second, as all the conjunctions are expressed.)
A brave prudent and honorable man was chosen.
Augustus Tiberius Nero and Vespasian were Roman emperors.
Through rainy weather across a wild country over muddy roads after a long ride we came to the end of our journey.
+PERIOD and CAPITAL LETTER—RULE.—Abbreviations generally begin with capital letters and are always followed by the period+.
CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
+Model.—+Mr., Esq., N. Y., P. M.
gen, a m, mrs, no, u s a, n e, eng, p o, rev, prof, dr, gram, capt, coi, co, va, conn.
+EXCLAMATION POINT—RULE.—All exclamatory expressions must be followed by the exclamation point+.
PUNCTUATE THE FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS.
+Model.—+Ah! Oh! Zounds! Stop pinching!
Pshaw, whew, alas, ho Tom, halloo Sir, good-bye, welcome.
LESSON 38.
SENTENCE-BUILDING.
+To the Teacher.—+Call attention to the agreement of verbs with compound subjects. Require the pupils to justify the verb-forms in Lesson 36 and elsewhere. See Notes, pp. 165-167.
Write predicates for the following compound subjects.
Snow and hail; leaves and branches; a soldier or a sailor; London and
Paris.
Write compound predicates for the following subjects.
The sun; water; fish; steamboats; soap; farmers; fences; clothes.
Write subjects for the following compound predicates.
Live, feel, and grow; judges and rewards; owes and pays; inhale and exhale; expand and contract; flutters and alights; fly, buzz, and sting; restrain or punish.
Write compound subjects before the following predicates.
May be seen; roar; will be appointed; have flown; has been recommended.
Write compound predicates after the following compound subjects.
Boys, frogs, and horses; wood, coal, and peat; Maine and New Hampshire;
Concord, Lexington, and Bunker Hill; pins, tacks, and needles.
Write compound subjects before the following compound predicates.
Throb and ache; were tried, condemned, and hanged; eat, sleep, and dress.
Choose your own material and write five sentences, each having a compound subject and a compound predicate.
LESSON 39.
COMPLEMENTS.
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—When we say, The sun gives, we express no complete thought. The subject sun is complete, but the predicate gives does not make a complete assertion. When we say, The sun gives light, we do utter a complete thought. The predicate gives is completed by the word light. Whatever fills out, or completes, we call a +Complement+. We will therefore call light the complement of the predicate. As light completes the predicate by naming the thing acted upon, we call it the +Object Complement+.
Expressions like the following may be written on the board, and by a series of questions the pupils may be made to dwell upon these facts till they are thoroughly understood.
The officer arrested ——-; the boy found ——-; Charles saw ——-; coopers make ——-.
Besides these verbs requiring object complements, there are others that do not make complete sense without the aid of a complement of another kind.
A complete predicate does the asserting and expresses what is asserted. In the sentence, Armies march, march is a complete predicate, for it does the asserting and expresses what is asserted; viz., marching. In the phrase, armies marching, marching expresses the same act as that denoted by march, but it asserts nothing. In the sentence, Chalk is white, is does the asserting, but it does not express what is asserted. We do not wish to assert merely that chalk is or exists. What we wish to assert of chalk, is the quality expressed by the adjective white. As white expresses a quality or attribute, we may call it an +Attribute Complement+.
Using expressions like the following, let the facts given above be drawn from the class by means of questions.
Grass growing; grass grows; green grass; grass is green.
+DEFINITION.—The Object Complement of a sentence completes the predicate, and names that which receives the act+.
+DEFINITION.—The Attribute Complement of a sentence completes the predicate and belongs to the subject+.
The complement with all its modifiers is called the +Modified
Complement+.
Analysis and Parsing.
+Model+.—Fulton invented the first steamboat.
Fulton | invented | steamboat
========|======================
| \ \
\the \first
+Explanation of the Diagram+.—You will see that the line standing for the object complement is a continuation of the predicate line, and that the little vertical line only touches this without cutting it.
+Oral Analysis.—+Fulton and invented, as before. Steamboat is the object complement, because it completes the predicate, and names that which receives the act. The and first, as before. The first steamboat is the modified complement.
1. Caesar crossed the Rubicon. 2. Morse invented the telegraph. 3. Ericsson built the Monitor. 4. Hume wrote a history. 5. Morn purples the east, 6. Antony beheaded Cicero.
+Model+.—Gold is malleable.
Gold | is \ malleable =====|=============== |
In this diagram, the line standing for the attribute complement, like the object line, is a continuation of the predicate line; but notice the difference in the little mark separating the incomplete[Footnote: Hereafter we shall call the verb the predicate, but, when followed by a complement, it must be regarded as an incomplete predicate.] predicate from the complement.
+Oral Analysis+.—-Gold and is, as before.
Malleable is the attribute complement, because it completes the predicate, and expresses a quality belonging to gold.
7. Pure water is tasteless. 8. The hare is timid. 9. Fawns are graceful. 10. This peach is delicious. 11. He was extremely prodigal. 12. The valley of the Mississippi is very fertile.
+To the Teacher+—See Notes, pp. 183,184.
* * * * *
LESSON 40.
ERRORS IN THE USE OF MODIFIERS.
+Caution+.—Place adverbs where there can be no doubt as to the words they modify.
ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.
I only bring forward a few things.
Hath the Lord only [Footnote: Adverbs sometimes modify phrases.]spoken by
Moses?
We merely speak of numbers.
The Chinese chiefly live upon rice.
+Caution+.—In placing the adverb, regard must be had to the sound of the sentence.
ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.
We always should do our duty.
The times have changed surely.
The work will be never finished.
He must have certainly been sick.
+Caution+.—Adverbs must not be used for adjectives.
ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.
I feel badly.
Marble feels coldly.
She looks nicely.
It was sold cheaply.
It appears still more plainly.
That sounds harshly.
I arrived at home safely.
+Caution+.—Adjectives must not be used for adverbs.
ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.
The bells ring merry.
The curtain hangs graceful.
That is a decided weak point.
Speak no coarser than usual.
These are the words nearest connected.
Talk slow and distinct.
She is a remarkable pretty girl.
+To the Teacher+.—For additional exercises in distinguishing adjectives from adverbs, see Notes, p. 181.
REVIEW QUESTIONS.
What is a conjunction? What is an interjection? Give two rules for the use of the comma (Lesson 37). What is the rule for writing abbreviations? What is the rule for the exclamation point? What is an object complement? What is an attribute complement? Illustrate both. What are the cautions for the position of the adverb? What are the cautions for the use of the adverb and the adjective?
+To the Teacher+.—See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement-Selection from Habberton.
* * * * *
LESSON 41.
ERRORS IN THE POSITION AND USE OF MODIFIERS.
+Caution+.—Phrase modifiers should be placed as near as may be to the words they modify.
+To the Teacher+.—For composition exercises with particular reference to arrangement, see Notes, pp. 172-176.
ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.
A fellow was arrested with short hair.
I saw a man digging a well with a Roman nose.
He died and went to his rest in New York.
Wanted—A room by two gentlemen thirty feet long and twenty feet wide.
Some garments were made for the family of thick material.
The vessel was beautifully painted with a tall mast.
I perceived that it had been scoured with half an eye.
A house was built by a mason of brown stone.
A pearl was found by a sailor in a shell.
Punctuate these sentences when corrected.
+Caution+.—Care must be taken to select the right preposition.
+To the Teacher+.—For the preposition to be used, consult the Unabridged
Dictionaries.
ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.
They halted with the river on their backs.
The cat jumped on the chair.
He fell onto the floor.
He went in the house.
He divides his property between his four sons.
He died for thirst.
This is different to that.
Two thieves divided the booty among themselves.
I am angry at him.
+Caution+.—Do not use two negative, or denying, words so that one shall contradict the other, unless you wish to affirm.
ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.
I haven't no umbrella.
Correct by dropping either the adjective no or the adverb not; as, I have no umbrella, or I have not an umbrella.
I didn't say nothing.
I can't do this in no way.
No other emperor was so wise nor powerful.
Nothing can never be annihilated.
LESSON 42.
ANALYSIS AND PARSING.
1. Brutus stabbed Caesar. 2. Man is an animal. 3. Washington captured Cornwallis. 4. Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. 5. Balboa discovered the Pacific ocean. 6. Vulcan was a blacksmith. 7. The summer has been very rainy. 8. Columbus made four voyages to the New World. 9. The moon reflects the light of the sun. 10. The first vice-president of the United States was John Adams. 11. Roger Williams was the founder of Rhode Island. 12. Harvey discovered the circulation of blood. 13. Diamonds are combustible. 14. Napoleon died a prisoner, at St.. Helena. 15. In 1619 the first ship-load of slaves was landed at Jamestown.
The pupil will notice that animal, in sentence No. 2, is an attribute complement, though it is not an adjective expressing a quality belonging to man, but a noun denoting his class. +Nouns+ then may be +attribute compliments+.
The pupil will notice also that some of the object and attribute complements above have phrase modifiers.
LESSON 43.
SENTENCE-BUILDING.
Using the following predicates, build sentences having subjects, predicates, and object complements with or without modifiers.
—— climb ——; —— hunt ——; —— command ——; —— attacked ——; —— pursued ——; —— shall receive ——; —— have seen ——; —— love ——.
Change the following expressions into sentences by asserting the qualities here assumed. Use these verbs for predicates:
Is, were, appears, may be, became, was, have been, should have been, is becoming, are.
+Model+.—Heavy gold. Gold is heavy.
Green fields; sweet oranges; interesting story; brilliant sunrise; severe punishment; playful kittens; warm weather; pitiful sight; sour grapes; amusing anecdote.
Prefix to the following nouns several adjectives expressing qualities, and then make complete sentences by asserting the same qualities.
white | Chalk is white.
+Model+.—brittle + chalk. Chalk is brittle.
soft | Chalk is soft.
Gold, pears, pens, lead, water, moon, vase, rock, lakes, summer, ocean, valley.
Find your own material, and build two sentences having object complements, and two having attribute complements.
LESSON 44.
ANALYSIS AND PARSING.
MISCELLANEOUS.
+Models+.—
expands
/===========
Learning | / ' \ | mind
=========|=and' \=======
| \ ' elevates / \the
\============
ran
=========
/ ' \forward
He | / '
=======|=== and'
| \ '
\ ' kissed | him
\================
In the second diagram, one of the predicate lines is followed by a complement line; but the two predicate lines are not united, for the two verbs have not a common object.
1. Learning expands and elevates the mind. 2. He ran forward and kissed him. 3. The earth and the moon are planets. 4. The Swiss scenery is picturesque. 5. Jefferson was chosen the third president of the United States. 6. Nathan Hale died a martyr to liberty. 7. The man stood speechless. 8. Labor disgraces no man. 9. Aristotle and Plato were the most distinguished philosophers of antiquity. 10. Josephus wrote a history of the Jews. 11. This man seems the leader of the whole party. 12. The attribute complement completes the predicate and belongs to the subject. 13. Lord Cornwallis became governor of Bengal after his disastrous defeat. 14. The multitude ran before him and strewed branches in the way. 15. Peter Minuits traded with the Indians, and bought the whole island of Manhattan for twenty-four dollars.
LESSON 45.
ANALYSIS AND PARSING.
MISCELLANEOUS.
+Model+.—
wise
/==========
/ ' \in
/ X' \ council
/ ' \————-
Henry IV. | was \ / ' simple
===========|============== '==========
\of | \very \ and' \in
\ House \ ' \ manners
\———— \ ' \————-
\the \of \ ' chivalric
\ Burbon \============
\———- \in
\ field
\———-
\the
The line standing for the word-modifier is joined to that part of the complement line which represents the entire attribute complement.
1. Henry IV., of the House of Bourbon, was very wise in council, simple in manners, and chivalric in the field. 2. Caesar defeated Pompey at Pharsalia. 3. The diamond is the most valuable gem. 4. The Greeks took Troy by stratagem. 5. The submarine cable unites the continent of America and the Old World. 6. The Gauls joined the army of Hannibal. 7. Columbus crossed the Atlantic with ninety men, and landed at San Salvador. 8. Vulcan made arms for Achilles. 9. Cromwell gained at Naseby a most decisive victory over the Royalists. 10. Columbus was a native of Genoa. 11. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb. 12. The morning hour has gold in its mouth. 13. The mill of the gods grinds late, but grinds to powder. 14. A young farmer recently bought a yoke of oxen, six cows, and a horse. 15. America has furnished to the world tobacco, the potato, and Indian corn.
LESSON 46.
ANALYSIS AND PARSING.
MISCELLANEOUS.
Cotton | is raised
===========|===============
| \ Egypt
\ /'———-
\in / '
\ / X'
\ / ' India
\—/ '————
\ '
\and'
\ '
\ ' United States
\———————-
\the
+Explanation of the Diagram+.—In this diagram the line representing the principal part of the phrase separates into three lines. This shows that the principal part of the phrase is compound. Egypt, India, and United States are all introduced by the same preposition in, and have the same relation to is raised.
1. Cotton is raised in Egypt, India, and the United States. 2. The navy of Hiram brought gold from Ophir. 3. The career of Cromwell was short. 4. Most mountain ranges run parallel with the coast. 5. Now swiftly glides the bonny boat. 6. An able but dishonest judge presided. 7. The queen bee lays eggs in cells of three different sizes. 8. Umbrellas were introduced into England from China. 9. The first permanent English settlement in America was made at Jamestown, in 1607. 10. The spirit of true religion is social, kind, and cheerful. 11. The summits of the Alps are covered with perpetual snow. 12. The months of July and August were named after Julius Caesar and Augustus Caesar. 13. All the kings of Egypt are called, in Scripture, Pharaoh. 14. The bamboo furnishes to the natives of China, shade, food, houses, weapons, and clothing.