LESSON 73.
CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES.
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—When I say large, round, sweet, yellow oranges, the words large, round, sweet, and yellow modify the word oranges by telling the kind, and limit the application of the word to oranges of that kind.
When I say this orange, yonder orange, one orange, the words this, yonder, and one do not tell the kind, but simply point out or number the orange, and limit the application of the word to the orange pointed out or numbered.
Adjectives of the first class describe by giving a quality, and so are called +Descriptive adjectives+.
Adjectives of the second class define by pointing out or numbering, and so are called +Definitive adjectives+.
Let the teacher write nouns on the board, and require the pupils to modify them by appropriate descriptive and definitive adjectives.
DEFINITIONS.
+A Descriptive Adjective is one that modifies by expressing quality+.
+A Definitive Adjective is one that modifies by pointing out, numbering, or denoting quantity+.
SENTENCE-BUILDING.
Place the following adjectives in two columns, one headed descriptive, and the other definitive, then build simple sentences in which they shall be employed as modifiers. Find out the meaning of each word before you use it.
Round, frolicsome, first, industrious, jolly, idle, skillful, each, the, faithful, an, kind, one, tall, ancient, modern, dancing, mischievous, stationary, nimble, several, slanting, parallel, oval, every.
Build simple sentences in which the following descriptive adjectives shall be employed as attribute complements. Let some of these attributes be compound.
Restless, impulsive, dense, rare, gritty, sluggish, dingy, selfish,
clear, cold, sparkling, slender, graceful, hungry, friendless.
Build simple sentences in which the following descriptive adjectives shall be employed.
Some of these adjectives have the form of participles, and some are derived from proper nouns.
+CAPITAL LETTER—RULE.—An Adjective derived from a proper noun must begin with a capital letter+.
Shining, moving, swaying, bubbling, American, German, French, Swiss,
Irish, Chinese.
LESSON 74.
CLASSES OF VERBS.
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—The man caught makes no complete assertion, and is not a sentence. If I add the object complement fish, I complete the assertion and form a sentence—The man caught fish. The action expressed by caught passes over from the man to the fish. Transitive means passing over, and so all those verbs that express an action that passes over from a doer to something which receives, are called +Transitive verbs+.
Fish swim. The verb swim does not require an object to complete the sentence. No action passes from a doer to a receiver. These verbs which express action that does not pass over to a receiver, and all those which do not express action at all, but simply being or state of being, are called +Intransitive verbs+.
Let the teacher write transitive and intransitive verbs on the board, and require the pupils to distinguish them.
When I say, I crush the worm, I express an action that is going on now, or in present time. I crushed the worm, expresses an action that took place in past time. As tense means time, we call the form crush the present tense of the verb, and crushed the past tense. In the sentence, The worm crushed under my foot died, crushed, expressing the action as assumed, is, as you have already learned, a participle; and, as the action is completed, we call it a past participle. Now notice that ed was added to crush, the verb in the present tense, to form the verb in the past tense, and to form the past participle. Most verbs form their past tense and their past participle by adding ed, and so we call such +Regular verbs+.
I see the man; I saw the man; The man seen by me ran away. I catch fish in the brook; I caught fish in the brook; The fish caught in the brook tasted good. Here the verbs see and catch do not form their past tense and past participle by adding ed to the present, and so we call them Irregular verbs.
Let the teacher write on the board verbs of both classes, and require the pupils to distinguish them.
DEFINITIONS.
CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO MEANING.
+A Transitive Verb is one that requires an object+. [Footnote: The object of a transitive verb, that is, the name of the receiver of the action, may be the object complement, or it may be the subject; as, Brutus stabbed Caesar, Caesar was stabbed by Brutus.]
+An Intransitive Verb is one that does not require an object+.
CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO FORM.
+A Regular Verb is one that forms its past tense and past participle by adding ed to the present+. [Footnote: If the present ends in e, the e is dropped when ed is added; as, lov_e_, lov_ed_; believ_e_, believ_ed_.]
+An Irregular Verb is one that does not form its past tense and past participle by adding ed to the present+.
SENTENCE-BUILDING.
Place the following verbs in two columns, one headed transitive and the other, intransitive. Place the same verbs in two other columns, one headed regular and the other, irregular. Build these verbs into sentences by supplying a subject to each intransitive verb, and a subject and an object to each transitive verb.
Vanish, gallop, bite, promote, contain, produce, provide, veto, secure, scramble, rattle, draw.
Arrange the following verbs as before, and then build them into sentences by supplying a subject and a noun attribute to each intransitive verb, and a subject and an object to each transitive verb.
Degrade, gather, know, was, became, is.
A verb may be transitive in one sentence and intransitive in another. Use the following verbs both ways.
+Model+.—The wren sings sweetly.
The wren sings a pretty little song.
Bend, ring, break, dash, move.
LESSON 75.
CLASSES OF ADVERBS.
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—When I say, He will come soon, or presently, or often, or early, I am using, to modify will come, words which express the time of coming. These and all such adverbs we call +Adverbs of Time+.
He will come up, or hither, or here, or back. Here I use, to modify will come, words which express place. These and all such adverbs we call +Adverbs of Place+.
When I say, The weather is so cold, or very cold, or intensely cold, the words so, very, and intensely modify the adjective cold by expressing the degree of coldness. These and all such adverbs we call +Adverbs of Degree+.
When I say, He spoke freely, wisely, and well, the words freely, wisely, and well tell how or in what manner he spoke. All such adverbs we call +Adverbs of Manner+.
Let the teacher place adverbs on the board, and require the pupil to classify them.
DEFINITIONS.
+Adverbs of Time are those that generally answer the question+, When?
_+Adverbs of Place are those that generally answer the question+, Where?
+Adverbs of Degree are those that generally answer the question+, To what extent?
+Adverbs of Manner are those that generally answer the question+, In what way?_
SENTENCE-BUILDING.
Place the following adverbs in the four classes we have made—if the classification be perfect, there will be five words in each column—then build each adverb into a simple sentence.
Partly, only, too, wisely, now, here, when, very, well, where, nobly, already, seldom, more, ably, away, always, not, there, out.
Some adverbs, as you have already learned, modify two verbs, and thus connect the two clauses in which these verbs occur. Such adverbs are called +Conjunctive Adverbs+.
The following dependent clauses are introduced by conjunctive adverbs.
Build them into complex sentences by supplying independent clauses.
——— when the ice is smooth; ——— while we sleep; ——— before winter comes; ——— where the reindeer lives; ——— wherever you go.
LESSON 76.
CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. [Footnote: For classified lists, see pp. 190,191.]
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—Frogs, antelopes, and kangaroos can jump. Here the three nouns are of the same rank in the sentence. All are subjects of can jump. War has ceased, and peace has come. In this compound sentence, there are two clauses of the same rank. The word and connects the subjects of can jump, in the first sentence: and the two clauses, in the second. All words that connect words, phrases, or clauses of the same rank are called +Co-ordinate Conjunctions+.
If you have tears, prepare to shed them now. I will go, because you need me. Here if joins the clause, you have tears, as a modifier, expressing condition, to the independent clause, prepare to shed them now; and because connects you need me, as a modifier, expressing reason or cause, to the independent clause, I will go. These and all such conjunctions as connect dependent clauses to clauses of a higher rank are called +Subordinate Conjunctions+.
Let the teacher illustrate the meaning and use of the words subordinate and co-ordinate.
DEFINITIONS.
+Co-ordinate Conjunctions are such as connect words, phrases, or clauses of the same rank+.
+Subordinate Conjunctions are such as connect clauses of different rank+.
SENTENCE-BUILDING.
Build four short sentences for each of the three co-ordinate conjunctions that follow. In the first, let the conjunction be used to connect principal parts of a sentence; in the second, to connect word modifiers; in the third, to connect phrase modifiers; and in the fourth, to connect independent clauses.
And, or, but.
Write four short complex sentences containing the four subordinate conjunctions that follow. Let the first be used to introduce a noun clause, and the other three to connect adverb clauses to independent clauses.
That, for, if, because.
LESSON 77.
REVIEW QUESTIONS.
What new subject begins with page 95? Name and define the different classes of nouns. Illustrate by examples the difference between common nouns and proper nouns. Name and define the different classes of pronouns. Can the pronoun I be used to stand for the one spoken to?—the one spoken of? Does the relative pronoun distinguish by its form the speaker, the one spoken to, and the one spoken of? Illustrate. Can any other class of pronouns be used to connect clauses?
For what do interrogative pronouns stand? Illustrate. Where may the antecedent of an interrogative pronoun generally be found? Ans.—The antecedent of an interrogative pronoun may generally lie found in the answer to the question.
Name and define the different classes of adjectives. Give an example of each class. Name and define the different classes of verbs, made with respect to their meaning. Give an example of each class. Name and define the different classes of verbs, made with respect to their form. Give an example of each class.
Name and define the different classes of adverbs. Give examples of each kind. Name and define the different classes of conjunctions. Illustrate by examples.
Are prepositions and interjections subdivided? (See "Schemes" for the conjunction, the preposition, and the interjection, p. 188.)
+To the Teacher+.—See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement— Selection from Dr. John Brown.
We suggest that other selections from literature be made and these exercises continued.
MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.
LESSON 78.
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.
You have learned that two words may express a thought, and that the thought may be varied by adding modifying words. You are now to learn that the meaning or use of a word may sometimes be changed by simply changing its form. The English language has lost many of its inflections, or forms, so that frequently changes in the meaning and use of words are not marked by changes in form. These changes in the form, meaning, and use of the parts of speech, we call their +Modifications+.
The boy shouts. The boys shout. I have changed the form of the subject boy by adding an s to it. The meaning has changed. Boy denotes one lad; boys, two or more lads. This change in the form and meaning of nouns is called +Number+. The word boy, denoting one thing, is in the +Singular Number;+ and boys, denoting more than one thing, is in the +Plural Number+.
Let the teacher write other nouns on the board, and require the pupils to form the plural of them.
DEFINITIONS.
+Modifications of the Parts of Speech are changes in their form, meaning, and use+.
NUMBER.
+Number is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes one thing or more than one+.
+The Singular Number denotes one thing+.
+The Plural Number denotes more than one thing+.
+RULE.—The plural of nouns is regularly formed by adding s to the singular+.
Write the plural of the following nouns.
Tree, bird, insect, cricket, grasshopper, wing, stick, stone, flower, meadow, pasture, grove, worm, bug, cow, eagle, hawk, wren, plough, shovel.
When a singular noun ends in the sound of s, x, z, sh, or ch, it is not easy to add the sound of s, so es is added to make another syllable.
Write the plural of the following nouns.
Guess, box, topaz, lash, birch, compass, fox, waltz, sash, bench, gas,
tax, adz, brush, arch.
Many nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant form the plural by adding es without increasing the number of syllables.
Write the plural of the following nouns.
Hero, cargo, negro, potato, echo, volcano, mosquito, motto.
Common nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant form the plural by changing y into i and adding es without increasing the number of syllables.
Write the plural of the following nouns.
Lady, balcony, family, city, country, daisy, fairy, cherry, study, sky.
Some nouns ending in f and fe form the plural by changing f or fe into ves without increasing the number of syllables.
Write the plural of the following nouns.
Sheaf, loaf, beef, thief, calf, half, elf, shelf, self, wolf, life, knife, wife.
LESSON 79.
NUMBER.
From the following list of nouns, select, and write in separate columns: 1st. Those that have no plural; 2d. Those that have no singular; 3d. Those that are alike in both numbers.
Pride, wages, trousers, cider, suds, victuals, milk, riches, flax, courage, sheep, deer, flour, idleness, tidings, thanks, ashes, scissors, swine, heathen.
The following nouns have very irregular plurals. Learn to spell the plurals.
Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.
Man, men. Foot, feet.
Woman, women. Ox, oxen.
Child, children. Tooth, teeth.
Mouse, mice. Goose, geese.
Learn the following plurals and compare them with the groups in the preceding Lesson.
Moneys, flies, chimneys, valleys, stories, berries, lilies, turkeys, monkeys, cuckoos, pianos, vetoes, solos, folios, gulfs, chiefs, leaves, roofs, scarfs, inches.
LESSON 80.
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.—GENDER.
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—The lion was caged. The lioness was caged. In the first sentence, something was said about a male lion; and in the second, something was said about a female lion. Modifications of the noun to denote the sex of the object, we call +Gender+. Knowing the sex of the object, you know the gender of its name. The word lion, denoting a male animal, is in the +Masculine Gender;+ and lioness, denoting a female lion, is in the +Feminine Gender+.
The names of things without sex are in the +Neuter Gender+.
Such words as cousin, child, friend, neighbor, may be either masculine or feminine.
+DEFINITIONS.
Gender is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes sex.
The Masculine Gender denotes the male sex.
The Feminine Gender denotes the female sex.
The Neuter Gender denotes want of sex+.
The masculine is distinguished from the feminine in three ways:—
1st. By a difference in the ending of the nouns.
2d. By different words in the compound names.
3d. By words wholly or radically different.
Arrange the following pairs in separate columns with reference to these ways.
Abbot, abbess; actor, actress; Francis, Frances; Jesse, Jessie; bachelor, maid; beau, belle; monk, nun; gander, goose; administrator, administratrix; baron, baroness; count, countess; czar, czarina; don, donna; boy, girl; drake, duck; lord, lady; nephew, niece; landlord, landlady; gentleman, gentlewoman; peacock, peahen; duke, duchess; hero, heroine; host, hostess; Jew, Jewess; man-servant, maid-servant; sir, madam; wizard, witch; marquis, marchioness; widow, widower; heir, heiress; Paul, Pauline; Augustus, Augusta.
REVIEW QUESTIONS.
What new way of varying the meaning of words is introduced in Lesson 78? Illustrate. What are modifications of the parts of speech? What is number? How many numbers are there? Name and define each. Give the rule for forming the plural of nouns. Illustrate the variations of this rule. What is gender? How many genders are there? Name and define each. In how many ways are the genders distinguished? Illustrate.
LESSON 81.
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.—PERSON AND CASE.
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—Number and gender, as you have already learned, are modifications affecting the meaning of nouns and pronouns. Number is almost always indicated by the ending; gender, sometimes. There are two other modifications which refer not to changes in the meaning of nouns and pronouns, but to their different uses and relations. In the English language, these changes are not often indicated by a change of form.
I Paul have written. Paul, thou art beside thyself. He brought Paul before Agrippa. In these three sentences the word Paul has three different uses. In the first, it is used as the name of the speaker; in the second, as the name of one spoken to; in the third, as the name of one spoken of. You will notice that the form of the noun was not changed. This change in the use of nouns and pronouns is called +Person+. The word I in the first sentence, the word thou in the second, and the word he in the third have each a different use. I, thou, and he are personal pronouns, and, as you have learned, distinguish person by their form. I, denoting the speaker, is in the +First Person+; thou, denoting the one spoken to, is in the +Second Person+; and he, denoting the one spoken of, is in the +Third Person+.
Personal pronouns and verbs are the only words that distinguish person by their form.
The bear killed the man. The man killed the bear. The bear's grease was made into hair oil. In the first sentence, the bear is represented as performing an action; in the second, as receiving an action; in the third, as possessing something. So the word bear in these sentences has three different uses. These uses of nouns are called +Cases+. The use of a noun as subject is called the +Nominative Case+; its use as object is called the +Objective Case+; and its use to denote possession is called the +Possessive Case+.
The possessive is the only case of nouns that is indicated by a change in form.
A noun or pronoun used as an attribute complement is in the nominative case. A noun or pronoun following a preposition as the principal word of a phrase is in the objective case. I and he are nominative forms. Me and him are objective forms.
The following sentences are therefore incorrect: It is me; It is him; Me gave the pen to he.
+DEFINITIONS.
Person is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of.
The First Person denotes the one speaking.
The Second Person denotes the one spoken to.
The Third Person denotes the one spoken of.
Case is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes its office in the sentence.
The Nominative Case of a noun or pronoun denotes its office as subject or as attribute complement.
The Possessive Case of a noun or pronoun denotes its office as possessive modifier.
The Objective Case of a noun or pronoun denotes its office as object complement, or as principal word in a prepositional phrase+.
LESSON 82.
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.—PERSON AND CASE.
Tell the person and case of each of the following nouns and pronouns.
+Remember+ that a noun or pronoun used as an explanatory modifier is in the same case as the word which it explains, and that a noun or pronoun used independently is in the nominative case.
We Americans do things in a hurry.
You Englishmen take more time to think.
The Germans do their work with the most patience and deliberation.
We boys desire a holiday.
Come on, my men; I will lead you.
I, your teacher, desire your success.
You, my pupils, are attentive.
I called on Tom, the tinker.
Friends, countrymen, and lovers, hear me for my cause.
Write simple sentences in which each of the following nouns shall be used in the three persons and in the three cases.
Andrew Jackson, Alexander, Yankees.
Write a sentence containing a noun in the nominative case, used as an attribute; one in the nominative, used as an explanatory modifier; one in the nominative, used independently.
Write a sentence containing a noun in the objective case, used to complete two predicate verbs; one used to complete a participle; one used to complete an infinitive; one used with a preposition to make a phrase; one used as an explanatory modifier.
+To the Teacher+.—See pp. 183, 184.
LESSON 83.
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.—DECLENSION.
+DEFINITION.—Declension is the arrangement of the cases of nouns and pronouns in the two numbers+.
Declension of Nouns.
LADY.
Singular. Plural. Nom. lady, ladies, Pos. lady's, ladies', Obj. lady; ladies.
CHILD.
Singular. Plural. Nom. child, children, Pos. child's, children's, Obj. child; children.
Declension of Pronouns.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
FIRST PERSON.
Singular. Plural. Nom. I, we, Pos. my or mine, our or ours, Obj. me; us.
SECOND PERSON—common form.
Singular. Plural. Nom. you, you, Pos. your or yours, your or yours, Obj. you; you.
SECOND PERSON—old form.
Singular. Plural. Nom. thou, ye or you, Pos. thy or thine, your or yours, Obj. thee; you.
THIRD PERSON—masculine.
Singular. Plural. Nom. he, they, Pos. his, their or theirs, Obj. him; them.
THIRD PERSON—feminine.
Singular. Plural. Nom. she, they, Pos. her or hers, their or theirs, Obj. her; them.
THIRD PERSON——neuter.
Singular. Plural. Nom. it, they, Pos. its, their or theirs, Obj. it; them.
Mine, ours, yours, thine, hers, and theirs are used when the name of the thing possessed is omitted; as, This rose is yours = This rose is your rose.
COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
By joining the word self to the possessive forms my, thy, your, and to the objective forms him, her, it, the +Compound Personal Pronouns+ are formed. They have no possessive case, and are alike in the nominative and the objective.
Their plurals are ourselves, yourselves, and themselves. Form the compound personal pronouns, and write their declension.
RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
Sing. and Plu. Nom. who, Pos. whose, Obj. whom.
Sing. and Plu. Nom. which, Pos. whose, Obj. which.
Of which is often used instead of the possessive form of the latter pronoun.
Sing. and Plu. Nom. that, Pos. ——, Obj. that.
Sing. and Plu. Nom. what, Pos. ——, Obj. what.
Ever and soever are added to who, which, and what to form the +Compound Relative Pronouns+. They are used when the antecedent is omitted. For declension, see above.
LESSON 84.
POSSESSIVE FORMS.
+RULE.—The possessive case of nouns is formed in the singular by adding to the nominative the apostrophe and the letter s ('s); in the plural, by adding (') only. If the plural does not end in s, the apostrophe and the s are both added+.
Write the possessive singular and the possessive plural of the following nouns, and place an appropriate noun after each.
Robin, friend, fly, hero, woman, bee, mouse, cuckoo, fox, ox, man, thief,
fairy, mosquito, wolf, shepherd, farmer, child, neighbor, cow.
Possession may be expressed also by the preposition of and the objective; as, the mosquito's bill = the bill of the mosquito.
The possessive sign ('s) is confined chiefly to the names of persons and animals.
We do not say the chair's legs, but the legs of the chair. Regard must be had also to the sound.
IMPROVE THE FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS, and expand each into a simple sentence.
The sky's color; the cloud's brilliancy; the rose's leaves; my uncle's partner's house; George's father's friend's farm; the mane of the horse of my brother; my brother's horse's mane.
When there are several possessive nouns, all belonging to one word, the possessive sign is added to the last only. If they modify different words, the sign is added to each.
CORRECT THE FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS, and expand each into a simple sentence.
+Model+.—Webster and Worcester's dictionary may be bought at Ticknor's and Field's book-store.
The possessive sign should be added to Webster, for the word dictionary is understood immediately after. Webster and Worcester do not together possess the same dictionary. The sign should not be added to Ticknor, for the two men, Tieknor and Field, possess the same store.
Adam's and Eve's garden; Jacob's and Esau's father; Shakespeare and Milton's works; Maud, Kate, and Clara's gloves; Maud's, Kate's, and Clara's teacher was ——.
When one possessive noun is explanatory of another, the possessive sign is added to the last only.
CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
I called at Tom's the tinker's.
They listened to Peter's the Hermit's eloquence.
This was the Apostle's Paul's advice.
CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
Our's, your's, hi's, their's, her's, it's, hisn, yourn, hern.
LESSON 85.
FORMS OF THE PRONOUN.
+Remember+ that I, we, thou, ye, he, she, they, and who are +nominative+ forms, and must not be used in the objective case.
+Remember+ that me, us, thee, him, her, them, and whom are +objective+ forms, and must not be used in the nominative case.
+To the Teacher+.—The eight nominative forms and the seven objective forms given above are the only distinctive nominative and objective forms in the English language. Let the pupils become familiar with them.
CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
Him and me are good friends.
The two persons were her and me.
Us girls had a jolly time.
It is them, surely.
Who will catch this? Me.
Them that despise me shall be lightly esteemed.
Who is there? Me.
It was not us, it was him.
Who did you see?
Who did you ask for?
+Remember+ that pronouns must agree with their antecedents in number, gender, and person.
CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
Every boy must read their own sentences.
I gave the horse oats, but he would not eat it.
Every one must read it for themselves.
I took up the little boy, and set it on my knee.
+Remember+ that the relative who represents persons; which, animals and things; that, persons, animals, and things; and what, things.
CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
I have a dog who runs to meet me.
The boy which I met was quite lame.
Those which live in glass houses must not throw stones.
REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+To the Teacher+.—For "Schemes," see p. 186.
How many modifications have nouns and pronouns? Name and define each. How many persons are there? Define each. How many cases are there? Define each. How do you determine the case of an explanatory noun or pronoun? What is declension? How are the forms mine, yours, etc., now used? What is the rule for forming the possessive case? What words are used only in the nominative case? What words are used only in the objective case? [Footnote: Her is used in the possessive case also.] How do you determine the number, gender, and person of pronouns?
LESSON 86.
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS—PARSING.
+To the Teacher+.—For general "Scheme" for parsing, see p. 189.
Select and parse all the nouns and pronouns in Lesson 53.
+Model for Written Parsing+.—Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh, was beheaded by James I.
Elizabeth's
CLASSIFICATION. Nouns.
Kind. Prop.
MODIFICATIONS. Person. 3d
Number. Sing.
Gender. Fem.
Case. Pos.
SYNTAX. Pos. Mod. of favorite.
favorite
CLASSIFICATION. Nouns.
Kind. Com.
MODIFICATIONS. Person. 3d
Number. Sing.
Gender. Mas.
Case. Nom.
SYNTAX. Sub. of was beheaded.
Raleigh
CLASSIFICATION. Nouns.
Kind. Prop.
MODIFICATIONS. Person. 3d
Number. Sing.
Gender. Mas.
Case. Nom.
SYNTAX. Exp. Mod. of favorite.
James I.
CLASSIFICATION. Nouns.
Kind. Prop.
MODIFICATIONS. Person. 3d
Number. Sing.
Gender. Mas.
Case. Obj.
SYNTAX. Prin. word after by.
+To the Teacher+.—Select other exercises, and continue this work as long as it may be profitable. See Lessons 56, 57, 61, 64, and 65.
LESSON 87.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
+Adjectives have one modification;+ viz., Comparison.
DEFINITIONS.
+Comparison is a modification of the adjective to express the relative degree of the quality in the things compared+.
+The Positive degree expresses the simple quality+.
+The Comparative degree expresses a greater or a less degree of the quality+.
+The Superlative degree expresses the greatest or the least degree of the quality+.
+RULE.—Adjectives are regularly compared by adding er to the positive to form the comparative, and est to the positive to form the superlative+.
Adjectives of one syllable are generally compared regularly; adjectives of two or more syllables are often compared by prefixing more and most.
When there are two correct forms, choose the one that can be more easily pronounced.
Compare the following adjectives. For the spelling, consult your dictionaries.
Model.—Positive. Comparative. Superlative. Lovely, lovelier, loveliest; or lovely, more lovely, most lovely.
Tame, warm, beautiful, brilliant, amiable, high, mad, greedy, pretty, hot.
Some adjectives are compared irregularly. Learn the following forms.
Positive. Comparative. Superlative.
Good, better, best.
Bad, |
Evil, + worse, worst.
Ill, |
Little, less, least.
Much, |
Many, | more, most.
LESSON 88.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS.
+Remember+ that, when two things or groups of things are compared, the comparative degree is commonly used; when more than two, the superlative is employed.
+Caution+.—Adjectives should not be doubly compared.
CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
Of all the boys, George is the more industrious.
Peter was older than the twelve apostles.
Which is the longer of the rivers of America?
This was the most unkindest cut of all.
He chose a more humbler part.
My hat is more handsomer than yours.
The younger of those three boys is the smarter.
Which is the more northerly, Maine, Oregon, or Minnesota?
+Caution+.—Do not use adjectives and adverbs extravagantly.
CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
The weather is horrid.
That dress is perfectly awful.
Your coat sits frightfully.
We had an awfully good time.
This is a tremendously hard lesson.
Harry is a mighty nice boy.
+Remember+ that adjectives whose meaning does not admit of different degrees cannot be compared; as, every, universal.
Use in the three different degrees such of the following adjectives as admit of comparison.
All, serene, excellent, immortal, first, two, total, infinite, three-legged, bright.
+Adverbs+ are compared in the same manner as adjectives. The following are compared regularly. Compare them.
Fast, often, soon, late, early.
In the preceding and in the following list, find words that may be used as adjectives.
The following are compared irregularly. Learn them.
Pos. Comp. Sup. —————- ————— ———— Badly, Ill, worse, worst. Well, better, best. Little, less, least. Much, more, most. Far, farther, farthest.
Adverbs ending in ly are generally compared by prefixing more and most. Compare the following.
Firmly, gracefully, actively, easily.
+To the Teacher+.—Let the pupils select and parse all the adjectives and adverbs in Lesson 27. For forms, see p. 189. Select other exercises, and continue the work as long as it is profitable. See "Schemes" for review, p. 188.
REVIEW QUESTIONS.
How is a noun parsed? What modification have adjectives? What is comparison? How many degrees of comparison are there? Define each. How are adjectives regularly compared? Distinguish the uses of the comparative and the superlative degree. Give the directions for using adjectives and adverbs (Lesson 88). Illustrate. What adjectives cannot be compared? How are adverbs compared?
LESSON 89.
MODIFICATION OF VERBS.
VOICE.
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—I picked the rose. I will tell the same thing in another way. The rose was picked by me. The first verb picked shows that the subject I represents the actor, and the second form of the verb, was picked, shows that the subject names the thing acted upon. This change in the form of the verb is called +Voice+. The first form is called the +Active Voice+; and the second, the +Passive Voice+.
The passive form is very convenient when we wish to assert an action without naming any actor. Money is coined is better than somebody coins money.
DEFINITIONS.
+Voice is that modification of the transitive verb which shows whether the subject names the actor or the thing acted upon+.
+The Active Voice shows that the subject names the actor+.
+The Passive Voice shows that the subject names the thing acted upon+.
In each of the following sentences, change the voice of the verb without changing the meaning of the sentence. Note the other changes that occur in the sentence.
The industrious bees gather honey from the flowers.
The storm drove the vessel against the rock.
Our words should be carefully chosen.
Death separates the dearest friends.
His vices have weakened his mind and destroyed his health.
True valor protects the feeble and humbles the oppressor.
The Duke of Wellington, who commanded the English armies in the
Peninsula, never lost a battle.
Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt.
Dr. Livingstone explored a large part of Africa.
The English were conquered by the Normans.
Name all the transitive verbs in Lessons 20 and 22, and give, their voice.
LESSON 90.
MODE, TENSE, NUMBER, AND PERSON.
+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—When I say, James walks, I assert the walking as a fact. When I say, James may walk, I do not assert the action as a fact, but as a possible action. When I say, If James walk out, he will improve, I assert the action, not as an actual fact, but as a condition of James's, improving. When I say to James, Walk out, I do not assert that James actually does the act, I assert the action as a command.
The action expressed by the verb walk has been asserted in four different ways, or +modes+. The first way is called the +Indicative Mode+; the second, the +Potential Mode+; the third, the +Subjunctive Mode+; the fourth, the +Imperative Mode+.
Let the teacher give other examples and require the pupils to repeat this instruction.
For the two forms of the verb called the +Infinitive+ and the +Participle+, see "Hints," Lessons 48 and 49.
I walk. I walked. I shall walk. In each of these three sentences, the manner of asserting the action is the same. I walk expresses the action as present. I walked expresses the action as past, and I shall walk expresses the action as future. As +Tense+ means time, the first form is called the +Present Tense+; the second, the +Past Tense+; and the third, the +Future Tense+.
We have three other forms of the verb, expressing the action as completed in the present, the past, or the future.
I have walked out to-day. I had walked out when he called. I shall have walked out by to-morrow. The form, have walked, expressing the action as completed in the present, is called the +Present Perfect Tense+. The form, had walked, expressing the action as completed in the past, is called the +Past Perfect Tense+. The form, shall have walked, expressing an action to be completed in the future, is called the +Future Perfect Tense+.
Let the teacher give other verbs, and require the pupils to name and explain the different tenses.
I walk. Thou walkest. He walks. They walk.
In the second sentence, the verb walk was changed by adding est; and in the third, it was changed by adding s. These changes are for the sake of agreement with the person of the subject. The verb ending in est agrees with the subject thou in the second person, and the verb ending in s agrees with he in the third person. In the fourth sentence, the subject is in the third person; but it is plural, and so the verb drops the s to agree with they in the plural.
Verbs are said to agree in +Person+ and +Number+ with their subjects. The person and number forms will be found in Lessons 93, 94.
+DEFINITIONS+.
+Mode is that modification of the verb which denotes the manner of asserting the action or being+.
+The Indicative Mode asserts the action or being as a fact+.
+The Potential Mode asserts the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity of acting or being+.
+The Subjunctive Mode asserts the action or being as a mere condition, supposition, or wish+.
+The Imperative Mode asserts the action or being as a command or an entreaty+.
+The Infinitive is a form of the verb which names the action or being in a general way, without asserting it of anything+.
+The Participle is a form of the verb partaking of the nature of an adjective or of a noun, and expressing the action or being as assumed+.
+The Present Participle denotes action or being as continuing at the time indicated by the predicate+.
+The Past Participle denotes action or being as past or completed at the time indicated by the predicate+.
+The Past Perfect Participle denotes action or being as completed at a time previous to that indicated by the predicate+.
+Tense is that modification of the verb which expresses the time of the action or being+.
+The Present Tense expresses action or being as present+.
+The Past Tense expresses action or being as past+.
+The Future Tense expresses action or being as yet to come+.
+The Present Perfect Tense expresses action or being as completed at the present time+.
+The Past Perfect Tense expresses action or being as completed at some past time+.
+The Future Perfect Tense expresses action or being to be completed at some future time+.
+Number and Person of a verb are those modifications that show its agreement with the number and person of its subject+.
LESSON 91.
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB.
+DEFINITIONS+.
+Conjugation is the regular arrangement of all the forms of the verb+.
+Synopsis is the regular arrangement of the forms of one number and person in all the modes and tenses+.
+Auxiliary Verbs are those that help in the conjugation of other verbs+.
The auxiliaries are do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, and must.
+The Principal Parts of a verb are the present indicative or the present infinitive, the past indicative, and the past participle+.
These are called principal parts, because all the other forms of the verb are derived from them.
We give, below, the principal parts of some of the most important irregular verbs. Learn them.
Present. Past. Past. Par.
Be or am, was, been.
Begin, began, begun.
Blow, blew, blown.
Break, broke, broken.
Choose, chose, chosen.
Come, came, come.
Do, did, done.
Draw, drew, drawn.
Drink, drank, drunk.
Drive, drove, driven.
Eat, ate, eaten.
Fall, fell, fallen.
Fly, flew, flown.
Freeze, froze, frozen.
Go, went, gone.
Get, got, got or gotten.
Give, gave, given.
Grow, grew, grown.
Have, had, had.
Know, knew, known.
Lay, laid, laid.
Lie, (to rest) lay, lain.
Ride, rode, ridden.
Ring, rang or rung, rung.
Rise, rose, risen.
Run, ran, run.
See, saw, seen.
Set, set, set.
Sit, sat, sat.
Shake, shook, shaken.
Sing, sang or sung, sung.
Slay, slew, slain.
Speak, spoke, spoken.
Steal, stole, stolen.
Swim, swam or swum, swum.
Take, took, taken.
Tear, tore, torn.
Throw, threw, thrown.
Wear, wore, worn.
Write, wrote, written.
The following irregular verbs are called +Defective,+ because some of their parts are wanting.
Present. Past. | Present. Past. ——————————|——————————- Can, could. | Will, would. May, might. | Must, —— Shall, should. | Ought, ——
LESSON 92.
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB +SEE+ IN THE SIMPLE FORM.
+PRINCIPAL PARTS+.
Pres. Past. Past Par. See, saw, seen.
INDICATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE.
Singular. Plural. 1. I see, 1. We see, 2. You see, or 2. You see, Thou seest, 3. He sees; 3. They see.
PAST TENSE.
1. I saw, 1. We saw, 2. You saw, or 2. You saw, Thou sawest, 3. He saw; 3. They saw.
FUTURE TENSE.
1. I shall see, 1. We shall see, 2. You will see, or 2. You will see, Thou wilt see, 3. He will see; 3. They will see.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
1. I have seen, 1. We have seen, 2. You have seen, or 2. You have seen, Thou hast seen 3. He has seen; 3. They have seen.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
1. I had seen, 1. We had seen, 2. You had seen, or 2. You had seen, Thou hadst seen, 3. He had seen; 3. They had seen.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
1. I shall have seen, 1. We shall have seen, 2. You will have seen, or 2. You will have seen, Thou wilt have seen, 3. He will have seen; 3. They will have seen.
POTENTIAL MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular. Plural. 1. I may see, 1. We may see, 2. You may see, or 2. You may see, Thou mayst see, 3. He may see; 3. They may see.
PAST TENSE.
1. I might see, 1. We might see, 2. You might see, or Thou mightst see, 2. You might see, 3. He might see; 3. They might see.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
1. I may have seen, 1. We may have seen, 2. You may have seen, or 2. You may have seen Thou mayst have seen, 3. He may have seen; 3. They may have seen.
PAST PERFECT TENSE.
Singular. Plural. 1. I might have seen, 1. We might have seen, 2. You might have seen, or 2. You might have seen, Thou mightst have seen, 3. He might have seen; 3. They might have seen.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular. Plural. 1. If I see, 1. If we see, 2. If you see, or 2. If you see, If thou see, 3. If he see; 3. If they see.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
2. See (you or thou); 2. See (you).
INFINITIVES.
PRESENT TENSE.
To see.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
To have seen.
PARTICIPLES.
PRESENT. PAST. PAST PERFECT.
Seeing, Seen, Having seen.
+To the Teacher+.—Let the pupils prefix do and did to the simple present see, and thus make the emphatic form of the present and the past tense.
Let can and must be used in place of may; and could, would, and should, in place of might.
Require the pupils to tell how each tense is formed, and to note all changes for agreement in number and person.
A majority of modern writers use the indicative forms instead of the subjunctive, in all of the tenses, unless it may be the present. The subjunctive forms of the verb to be are retained in the present and the past tense. Let the pupils understand that the mode and tense forms do not always correspond with the actual meaning. The ship sails next week. I may go to-morrow. The verbs sails and may go are present in form but future in meaning. If it rains by noon, he may not come. The verb rains is indicative in form but subjunctive in meaning.
The plural forms, You saw, You were, etc., are used in the singular also.