But it has always encountered obstacles which have arrested its progress. First there have been disagreements between those who favour the idea. Should the guild be optional or compulsory, open or closed? What share should masters and workmen take in it? Should it aim only at mutual assistance, or should it be competent to act in disputes between members? On the one hand there were those who were afraid of reviving the tyrannical monopoly of the old wardenships and on the other those who were afraid of forming, without meaning to do so, the framework for a socialistic organization of labour. All this was enough to paralyse those who might have been willing to join. But there was an even greater difficulty; though some of the great employers, those of the Val des Bois for example, supported the cause, the working classes, not unreasonably, stood aloof, uneasy and defiant. They dreaded any sort of patronage in which the heads would bombard them with pious exhortations and hold up to them the dismal virtue of resignation; they remembered M. Claudio Jannet’s confession that he looked to Christianity “to solve the social question by inspiring masters with the spirit of justice and charity, and by making the less-favoured classes accept their lot.” They could not forget that the Holy Father had written that the guilds should have “religion for their guide,” and they thought they had a foretaste of the fate in store for them, in the statutes of association of the printer-bookseller-bookbinders of Paris in the new model (1879): “Art. III. To belong a man must be a Catholic. Art. IV. Must bind himself not to work, or employ another on Sunday. Art. V. To print no irreligious book.” In short, they were afraid of putting themselves under the yoke of the confessional and of losing their liberty of thought, and they looked on an institution from which were excluded in advance all who did not hold a certificate of orthodoxy, as too much resembling the Middle Ages, and as an anachronism in a society where rights are equal for all citizens irrespective of religion.
A few theorists[149] no doubt prided themselves on enlarging this narrow conception; but the compulsory guilds, open and federated, which they dreamed of instituting, were so different from the old guilds that there was really nothing in common except the name.
It was in Austria, in surroundings less cut off from the past than in France, that guilds more resembling the original type awoke to an appearance of life.[150] Created by law in 1883, they have set before themselves some of the aims of the Arti of Florence, viz. the safeguarding of the honour of the trade and, to this end, the regulation of apprenticeship; the foundation or assistance of institutions for technical instruction; the exaction of a preliminary examination from any one who wishes to set up as a craftsman or merchant; the buying of raw material at the expense of the community; the provision of arbitrators to settle trade differences, and the insurance of members against sickness, etc. They even try, as in old times, to secure the legal monopoly of a craft and to forbid hawking, etc. They remind one very much of what I have called the capitalistic guilds of the Middle Ages, and those of great commerce and “great” industry, with the sole difference that they are compulsory for all who carry on the same trade. (See p. 28.) All the authority, in fact, is in the hands of the masters, and although they are reminded of their duties towards the workers, the latter are subordinate, can only present petitions, and are only allowed to decide as to the administration of benefit funds. It is more than doubtful whether this reproduction of the most hierarchical form of the ancient guilds has much chance of spreading at a time when ideas of equality have made such headway and when the working classes are strong enough to refuse meekly to submit to the conditions employers lay down. It must also be remembered that “great” industry, for and by whom this method was formerly designed, is excepted from Austrian legislation, which forces it on the “small” trades, to which this renewal of the regulations of the old statutes seems to be a great hindrance. Imitation of this system, which is itself only a more or less successful imitation, has so far not gone farther than Hungary and Germany (the Innungen). In Belgium, Switzerland, and even in France, Christian associations are to be found on the same model. They always include two groups which never assimilate; masters and workmen who have separate representation and pay unequal subscriptions. The principle is always Charity, the devotion of one class to another, no doubt an honourable sentiment, but one with which is mingled a protective spirit it seems impossible to do away with. For Pope Leo XIII. himself, in his Encyclical of May 16, 1891, states that, in civilized society, it is impossible that every one shall rise to the same level, and that, in consequence, there will always be rich and poor. “Just as, in the human body, the members, in spite of their diversity, adapt themselves so marvellously to each other as to form a perfectly proportioned whole, which may be called symmetrical, so, in society, the two classes are destined by nature to unite in harmony, and to maintain together a perfect balance.” Life and experience, however, would seem to prove the opposite. The only thing to be gained by these attempts to return to a time that has disappeared for ever is the combination of crafts—a necessity which seeks to-day, as it has always done, its legitimate satisfaction. But new methods of production and sale demand new forms of organization of sellers and producers, and have brought us to the system, evolved by those concerned, spontaneously, without prejudiced or preconceived theories, by the direct force of circumstances—the system of Trade Unionism, which has succeeded the guild system as the defender of trade interests.
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FOOTNOTES:
[1] Panetier, one charged with the distribution of bread in big establishments.
[2] Bouteillier, an official for the inspection and superintendence of wine in a royal household.
[3] A short study and a detailed bibliography of the origin of guilds will be found in M. Martin-Saint-Léon’s Histoire des corporations de métier, book i., 2nd edition. We recommend it to the reader, but do not ourselves accept all the author’s opinions. As, however, he chiefly gives the German, English, and French sources of information, we add a list of Italian works, or works concerning Italy, which deal with the same subject, classifying them according to the theories they adopt.
The theory of the separate creation of each guild is defended by M. Arrigo Solmi (Le Assoziazioni in Italia avanti le origini del Commune, 1898), but since then the works and criticisms of Messrs. Robert Davidsohn, Alfred Doren, Hartmann, and Bonolis have deprived his arguments of all that was strongest and most original in them. M. Solmi, in an article in the Rivista Italiana di Sociologia, ix. 1 (Roma, 1905), entitled “Sulla storia economica d’Italia nel medio evo,” himself recognized that the persistence of certain ancient institutions and the division of labour in the great royal or feudal domains appear to have played an important part in the organization of crafts. M. Nino Tamassia has specially emphasized, amongst other causes, the part played by the influence of religious congregations and fraternities.
[4] The origin of the cities having been so different (see J. Flach, Les Origines de l’ancienne France), the causes which predominate in each must have been equally diverse.
[5] The Arte dei Fabbri, for instance, extended over all the suburbs of Florence.
[6] In France, for example, a long war was fought between the guilds and those whom they called chambrelans.
[7] A similar organization existed at Strasburg. The Zunft (guild) included several Antwerke, see Schmoller, Die Strassburger Tücher und Weberzunft Urkunden und Darstellung.
[8] R. Davidsohn, Forschungen zur Geschichte von Florenz.
[9] A. Doren, Entwicklung und Organisation der Florentiner Zünfte; G. Renard, La Révolution sociale au XIVe siècle.
[10] The following may be consulted on this subject: Davidsohn, Forschungen zur Geschichte von Florenz, vol. iii. p. 221; Martin-Saint-Léon, Histoire des corporations de métier, p. 277; Fagniez, Documents relatifs à l’histoire de l’industrie et du commerce en France, vol. ii. pp. 170, 190, 201.
[11] H. Hauser, Ouvriers du temps passé, p. 40.
[12] Martin-Saint-Léon, Histoire des corporations de métier, pp. 84, 86, 291; Franklin, La Vie privée d’autrefois, p. 78; Fagniez, Documents relatifs à l’histoire de l’industrie et du commerce en France, vol. i. p. 309.
[13] Hauser, Ouvriers du temps passé, pp. 59-76; Boissonnade, Essai sur l’organisation en Poitou, etc., pp. 53, 64, 68; Martín-Saint-Léon, Histoire des corporations de métier, p. 89 ; Fagniez, Documents relatifs à l’histoire de l’industrie et du commerce en France, vol. i. p. 268.
[14] E. Levasseur, Histoire des classes ouvrières et de l’industrie en France avant 1789, pp. 1, 321; Martin-Saint-Léon, Histoire des corporations de métier, p. 117; Fagniez, Documents relatifs à l’histoire de l’industrie et du commerce en France, vol. i. pp. 231, 245, 282.
[15] Martin-Saint-Léon, Histoire des corporations de métier, p. 121.
[16] Hauser, Ouvriers du temps passé, p. 62; Fagniez, Documents relatifs à l’histoire de l’industrie et du commerce en France, vol. i. pp. 36, 220.
[17] Avenel, Histoire économique de la propriété, des salaires, des denrées et tous les prix en général, passim.
[18] Boissonnade, Essai sur l’organisation du travail en Poitou, depuis le XIme siècle jusqu’à la Révolution, vol. ii. p. 150.
[19] Martin-Saint-Léon, Histoire des corporations de métier, pp. 135, 291, 294.
[20] Vanderkindere, Le Siècle des Artevelde, p. 132; E. Levasseur, vol. i. p. 315, note.
[21] Martin-Saint-Léon, Histoire des corporations de métier, p. 280.
[22] Fagniez, Documents relatifs à l’histoire de l’industrie et du commerce en France, vol. i. p. 290.
[23] Quotation from Beugnot’s edition, p. 429.
[24] Le Livre des métiers, xxv. p. 65.
[25] Fagniez, Documents relatifs à l’histoire de l’industrie et du commerce en France, vol. i. pp. 1, 245; E. Levasseur, Histoire des classes ouvrières et de l’industrie en France avant 1789, vol. i. p. 312.
[26] Consult the following for information concerning the legal and economic status of women: Gaston Richard, Les Femmes dans l’histoire, p. 282; Hauser, Ouvriers du temps passé, pp. 142-160; Fagniez, Documents relatifs à l’histoire de l’industrie et du commerce en France, vol. i. pp. 259-261, 277, 310, vol. ii. p. 204.
[27] Consult W. J. Ashley’s Economic History, concerning guildae and hanses. A bibliography will be found in vol. i. See also Émile Worms.
[28] Statutes of the Arte di Calimala (book ii. art. 23).
[29] For information on this subject consult A. Doren and Davidsohn for Florence; Pirenne for Flanders; Schmoller and Lamprecht for Germany.
[30] It is certain that in Great States the statutes of the different towns were connected, and it is probable that they were so in the period preceding the formation of Great States.
[31] Martin-Saint-Léon, Histoire des corporations de métier, pp. 266 and 290; Rodocanachi, Les Corporations ouvrières à Rome depuis la chute de l’Empire romain, p. lix.
[32] Fagniez, Documents relatifs à l’histoire de l’industrie et du commerce en France, vol. ii. p. 189.
[33] Statutes of the Calimala, bk. ii. art. 35 and 44.
[34] Rodocanachi, Les Corporations ouvrières à Rome depuis la chute de l’Empire Romain.
[35] Fagniez, Documents relatifs à l’histoire de l’industrie et du commerce en France, vol. ii. p. 59.
[36] Justin Godart, L’Ouvrier en soie, p. 88, note.
[37] Rodocanachi, p. xcii.
[38] Brisson, Histoire du travail et des travailleurs, p. 23.
[39] Martin-Saint-Léon, Histoire des corporations de métier, p. 275.
[40] Fagniez, Documents relatifs à l’histoire de l’industrie et du commerce en France, vol. i. pp. 1, 274.
[41] Statuts de Calimala.
[42] La Sorsa, Gli statuti degli orefici e sellai fiorentini al principio del secolo xiv.
[43] Fagniez, Documents relatifs à l’histoire de l’industrie et du commerce en France, vol. ii. pp. 71, 149.
[44] Brisson, Histoire du travail et des travailleurs, p. 22.
[45] Franklin, La Vie privée d’autrefois, p. 25.
[46] Georges Renard, Les Banquiers florentins en France au XIIIme siècle.
[47] Paul Lacroix, Mœurs, usages et costumes du moyen âge et à l’époque de la Renaissance, pp. 234 and 430.
[48] Statutes of the Calimala, bk. iii. art. 20-22.
[49] Fagniez, Documents relatifs à l’histoire de l’industrie et du commerce en France, pp. 11, 190-200.
[50] Levasseur, Histoire des classes ouvrières et de l’industrie en France avant 1789, vol. i. p. 335.
[51] Brisson, Histoire du travail et des travailleurs, p. 19; Boissonnade, Essai sur l’organisation de travail en Poitou, vol. i. p. 287.
[52] Martin-Saint-Léon, Histoire des corporations de métier, pp. 271-274.
[53] Paul Lacroix, Mœurs, usages et costumes au moyen âge et à l’époque de la Renaissance, p. 317.
[54] Fagniez, Documents relatifs à l’histoire de l’industrie et du commerce en France, vol. i. p. 113.
[55] Franklin, La Vie privée d’autrefois, vol. i. pp. 66-67; Rodocanachi, Les Corporations ouvrières à Rome, p. lxxxviii.
[56] A. Doren, Entwicklung und Organisation der Florentiner Zünfte.
[57] Rodocanachi, Les Corporations ouvrières à Rome depuis la chute de l’Empire romain, p. cxii.
[58] Franklin, La Vie privée d’autrefois, p. 67.
[59] Statutes of the Arte dei medici, speziali e merciai.
[60] Statutes of the Arte di Calimala.
[61] Charles Dejob, Le Marchand de vin dans les vieilles communes de l’Italie, p. 14.
[62] See the statutes of the Arte di Calimala, and of the Arte di Por Santa Maria.
[63] E. Levasseur, Histoire des classes ouvrières et de l’industrie en France avant 1789, vol. i. pp. 293-298.
[64] Fagniez, Documents relatifs à l’histoire de l’industrie et du commerce en France, vol. i. p. 146.
[65] Martin-Saint-Léon, Histoire des corporations de métier, pp. 273, 287.
[66] Fagniez, Documents relatifs à l’histoire de l’industrie et du commerce en France, vol. i. pp. 40, 52, 93.
[67] Ibid.
[68] Fagniez, Documents relatifs à l’histoire de l’industrie et du commerce en France, vol. i. pp. 89, 112.
[69] Consult Rodocanachi and Boissonnade on this subject.
[70] Rodocanachi, Les Corporations ouvrières à Rome depuis la chute de l’Empire Romain, p. xxv.
[71] Levasseur, Histoire des classes ouvrières et de l’industrie en France avant 1789, vol. i. pp. 561.
[72] Martin-Saint-Léon, Histoire des corporations de métier, p. 110.
[73] Boissonnade, Essai sur l’organisation du travail en Poitou, etc., vol. ii. p. 276; Bourgeois, Les Métiers de Blois, passim.
[74] Fagniez, Documents relatifs à l’histoire de l’industrie et du commerce en France, vol. i. pp. 145, 250.
[75] Boissonnade, vol. ii. p. 276.
[76] Paul Lacroix, Mœurs, usages, et costumes au moyen âge et à l’époque de la Renaissance, p. 442.
[77] Boissonnade, Essai sur l’organisation en Poitou, etc., vol. ii. p. 293.
[78] Levasseur, Histoire des classes ouvrières et de l’industrie en France avant 1789, vol. i. p. 343; Boissonnade, Essai sur l’organisation en Poitou, etc., vol. i. p. 172.
[79] Franklin, La Vie privée d’autrefois. La cuisine, p. 230.
[80] The word as here used must not be confused with its meaning in connection with the Florentine Guilds, see p. 8.
[81] The number of members composing a guild also contributed to its social status; but this was a factor of very much less importance.
[82] Ribot, Essai sur l’imagination créatrice, p. 234; Tarde, Psychologie économique, bk. i. chap. v. §§ iv. v.
[83] A. Doren, Studien aus der florentiner Wirthschaftgeschichte.
[84] Levasseur, Histoire des classes ouvrières, etc., vol. i. p. 343.
[85] Perrens, Histoire de Florence, vol. vi. chap. v.
[86] The inhabitants of Perpignan were classed in three mains (major, middle, and minor). See Drapé.
[87] Ach. Luchaire, Les Communes françaises à l’époque des capétiens directs, pp. 207-215.
[88] Georges Renard, Revue économique internationale, Jan. 1909, article entitled “La révolution sociale au XIVe siècle.”
[89] Davidsohn, Forschungen zur Geschichte von Florenz, vol. iii.
[90] Livre des métiers, p. 1.
[91] Fagniez, Documents relatifs à l’histoire de l’industrie et du commerce en France, vol. i. p. 75.
[92] Franklin, La Vie privée d’autrefois, comment on devenait patron, p. 70; Martin-Saint-Léon, Histoire des corporations de métier, p. 275.
[93] Boissonnade, Essai sur l’organisation du travail en Poitou, etc., vol. ii. p. 250.
[94] Fagniez, vol. i. p. 115.
[95] Karl Bücher, Études d’histoire et d’économie politique, passim.
[96] Macaulay, History of England (Everyman), vol. i. p. 323.
[97] Germain-Martin, La Grande Industrie sous le règne de Louis XIV, p. 232.
[98] E. Levasseur, Histoire des classes ouvrières, etc., vol. i. p. 590.
[99] Thomas More, Utopia.
[100] Ashley.
[101] André Liesse, Le Travail.
[102] Beatrice and Sidney Webb, History of Trade Unionism, p. 41.
[103] Macaulay, History of England (Everyman), vol. i. p. 292.
[104] Germain-Martin, La Grande Industrie sous le règne de Louis XV.
[105] Beatrice and Sidney Webb, History of Trade Unionism, p. 13.
[106] Page 24. Their position was the same in the Arte della seta.
[107] Macaulay, History of England (Everyman), vol. i. p. 323, note.
[108] Hauser, Ouvriers du temps passé, chap. x.
[109] Mantoux, La Révolution industrielle au XVIIIme siècle, p. 55. [The song is quoted in full in J. Burnley’s Wool and Wool-combing, pp. 161 ff.—Editor.]
[110] Mantoux, La Révolution industrielle au XVIIIme siècle.
[111] See Levasseur, Histoire des classes ouvrières, etc., chap. vi.; Hauser, Les Compagnonnages d’arts et métiers, etc., p. 8 and passim; Martin-Saint-Léon, Le Compagnonnage.
[112] Hauser, Les Compagnonnage d’arts et métiers à Dijon au XVIIme et XVIIIme siècles, p. 168.
[113] Du Bellay; see also Grévin, prologue to La Trésorière.
[114] Jules Zeller, Histoire d’Allemagne.
[115] Boissonnade, Essai sur l’organisation du travail en Poitou, vol. ii. pp. 354-357.
[116] Germain-Martin.
[117] Ashley.
[118] Fagniez, Corporations et syndicats, p. 23.
[119] Quoted by Michelet, Histoire de France, vol. v. p. 312.
[120] Levasseur, vol. ii. p. 138.
[121] J. Bodin, De la République, bk. iii. chap. viii.
[122] See Boissonnade, vol. ii. pp. 360, 465; Bourgeois, vol. ii. p. 243. The master saddlers of Blois (1593) asked the king to grant them statutes “similar to those of Tours and other free towns of this kingdom.”
[123] They even formed guilds, as, for instance, the dressmakers’ guild, which owed its existence to Colbert.
[124] Ashley, Economic History, vol. ii. p. 13.
[125] Mantoux, La Révolution industrielle au XVIIIme siècle, p. 65.
[126] Cantini, Legislazione toscana, x. chap. xxix. and xxx.
[127] Misul, Le Arti Fiorentini, passim.
[128] Boissonnade, Essai sur l’organisation du travail en Poitou, depuis le XIme siècle jusqu’à la Révolution, vol. ii. p. 79.
[129] Martin-Saint-Léon, Histoire des corporations de métier, p. 348.
[130] Pigeonneau, Histoire du Commerce de la France, vol. i. p. 180.
[131] Boissonnade, Essai sur l’organisation du travail en Poitou, depuis le XIme siècle jusqu’à la Révolution, vol. ii. p. 123.
[132] Martin-Saint-Léon, Histoire des corporations de métier, p. 358.
[133] “Poids de marc”; marc, ancient weight of eight ounces (Larousse).
[134] Mantoux, La Révolution industrielle au XVIIIme siècle, p. 67.
[135] Boissonnade, vol. ii. p. 430.
[136] Boissonnade, Essai sur l’organisation du travail en Poitou, etc., vol. ii. pp. 120, 488.
[137] W. J. Ashley.
[138] Martin-Saint-Léon, Histoire des corporations de métier, p. 312.
[139] Mantoux, La Révolution industrielle au XVIIIme siècle, pp. 195-208.
[140] Montesquieu, bk. xxiii. chap. xv.
[141] Martin-Saint-Léon, Histoire des corporations de métier, p. 523.
[142] Mantoux, La Révolution industrielle au XVIIIme siècle, pp. 472, 487.
[143] Beatrice and Sidney Webb, History of Trade Unionism, p. 44.
[144] For the whole of the preceding consult Martin-Saint-Léon, Histoire des corporations de métier, pp. 511, 516; Hayem, Domaines respectifs de l’association et de la société, p. 23; Jaurès, La Constituante, pp. 600-630.
[145] Misul, Le Arti Fiorentine; La Camera di Commerzio.
[146] E. Vandervelde, Enquéte sur les associations professionnelles d’artisans et ouvriers en Belgique, vol. i.
[147] J. Paul-Boncour in Le Fédéralisme économique, p. 14, gives a list of the guilds which survive in France.
[148] On this subject see Martin-Saint-Léon, Histoire des corporations de métier, bk. vii.; and Paul Louis, Histoire du mouvement syndical en France, p. 67.
[149] Martin-Saint-Léon, Histoire des corporations de métier, bk. vii. chap. iii., “The Guilds of the Future.”
[150] Hubert-Valleroux, Les Associations ouvrières et les associations patronales, p. 130; Altmann, Le Régime corporatif des métiers en Autriche et en Allemagne au XIXme siècle.