Hallowed Heritage: The Life of Virginia

On July 4, 1781, General Cornwallis and his troops left Williamsburg, fought an inconsequential battle at Greenspring (near Jamestown) and then crossed the James River to Portsmouth where he proceeded to Yorktown. By September 1781, he had approximately eight thousand soldiers garrisoned on the peninsula at Yorktown. He had selected this site because he thought it was a secure one: the Chesapeake Bay was on the east, the York River on the north and the James River on the south. Actually, he had placed his soldiers in a most penetrable trap.

Marquis de Lafayette played an important part in the Revolutionary War. An outstanding example of foreign help received by the Americans, Lafayette had volunteered at the age of nineteen to serve in the American Army in 1777. After arriving from France in North Carolina, he rode horseback to Philadelphia to appear personally before the Continental Congress to offer his services to the American colonies. He had been appointed a Major-General by Congress and had been placed on Washington's staff. He had fought in the Battle of Brandywine Creek (Pennsylvania) and had been seriously wounded. His outstanding bravery had been recognized by Washington and they had begun a strong friendship which was to continue throughout their lives. He had endured with Washington the terrible winter at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania (1777-1778) and acted as a morale builder to Washington's disheartened forces. He had been the hero at the Battle of Monmouth, New Jersey. After France had officially recognized the independence of the United States, Lafayette had returned to France, and, after encouraging many French soldiers to help the Americans fight, he had rejoined Washington. In 1781, Washington had sent him to defend and protect Virginia where he had cleverly pursued Cornwallis from near Charlottesville to Yorktown. After his role in the final strategy of Yorktown defense and his return to France, one can understand why Virginians consider Lafayette one of their heroes and have a famous bust of him created by the great sculptor, Jean Antoine Houdon, located in the rotunda of the State Capitol Building in Richmond.

As soon as Lafayette had noticed Cornwallis gathering his troops at Yorktown, he realized the possibility of surrounding Cornwallis and his forces since Lafayette was so well acquainted with this terrain. He immediately informed Washington of this situation and Washington quickly headed for his home state. In the meantime, General Lafayette surrounded Cornwallis and his troops on the south and on the west. Simultaneously, a fleet of twenty-five French warships from the West Indies under command of Admiral de Grasse sailed up the Chesapeake Bay with 3,000 French troops. This movement prevented Cornwallis from either receiving British enforcements or from escaping out to sea. General Washington, after feigning an attack against General Henry Clinton in New York, rapidly moved his army southward, joined with the forces of General Count de Rochambeau. Washington soon attacked the British on the north and on the west. Although Cornwallis realized that he was completely surrounded by American and French forces, he and his troops fought valiantly for weeks.

The home of General Thomas Nelson, the Governor of Virginia at this time, was located in Yorktown. General Cornwallis had taken possession of this house for his headquarters at Yorktown. Out of deference to the Governor, the American soldiers had refrained from firing upon it. However, General Nelson ordered them to fire upon the house, regardless of its sentimental value, because it housed British officers. The first shot killed two British officers and a cannon ball still embedded in one wall may be observed today in the Nelson House at Yorktown.

Finally recognizing the futility of fighting any longer, on October 17, 1781, General Cornwallis requested a parley, ordered a cease firing, and exchanged messages with Washington. At two o'clock of the next afternoon, Cornwallis selected the Moore House in Yorktown for a discussion of surrender terms: this house was out of range of the firing and conveniently located. The British, the French and the Americans sent representatives for the consultation, John Laurens representing the Americans. After long discussion and debate, the articles of capitulation were agreed upon and the generals signed them the next day. At twelve o'clock on October 19, 1781, the British signing was done by General Cornwallis and Thomas Symonds, the American signing by General Washington, and the French signing by General Rochambeau and Count de Barras for Count de Grasse. On October 19, at 2 p.m., as agreed upon by the surrender terms, the British army of 7,000 troops left Yorktown and laid down their arms at Surrender Field, just south of the town. They marched between two long lines of the French on one side and the Americans on the other side. General Charles O'Hara, the leader of the British, apologized to Washington for the non-appearance of Lord Cornwallis who was reported ill. The Battle of Yorktown ended the Revolutionary War although the peace treaty was not signed until 1783.

In this same year, the American army was demobilized. George Washington bade farewell to his officers at Fraunces' Tavern, New York City, on December 4, resigned on December 23 and returned to Mt. Vernon to retire. Already he had won the admiration of the new nation for his continued courage, bravery and great military strategy so ably exemplified during the American Revolutionary War. He also had earned the well-deserved title: "The Sword of the Revolution."

The Adoption of the United States and State Constitutions

By 1785, the Americans began to realize that the Articles of Confederation were too weak to become effective. The central government did not have sufficient political power to govern, the lack of a single executive resulted in a lack of leadership, the Confederation Congress could make laws but had no power to enforce them, the Congress could issue paper money and coins but had no power to buy gold and silver for backing this money and the Congress could levy taxes but had no power to collect them. There was no provision for a national court system. In order to pass a law, nine states had to agree in its favor; in order to amend the Articles, all thirteen states had to agree. Under the Articles of Confederation, the government was a confederacy in which each state retained its own political authority and the central government was responsible to the states. The control of foreign and interstate commerce was left entirely to the individual states. Chaos and confusion resulted. Consequently, in 1785, George Washington invited some representatives from Maryland and from Virginia to meet with him to discuss the problem of a stronger central government and to settle a dispute which had arisen concerning the navigation of the Potomac River.

The conference started at the City Tavern (later known as Gadsby's Tavern) in Alexandria and was later continued at Mount Vernon, home of Washington. During the discussion, Washington stated that there should be a common money system for all the states as well as a common plan for regulating domestic and foreign commerce. James Madison was one of the Virginians present, and he felt that there must be other problems of common interest to all the states. Therefore, when the next General Assembly met in January 1786, Madison proposed that representatives from all the states should meet at Annapolis, Maryland on September 11, 1786 to discuss trade problems and other areas of mutual interest. The Virginia legislature, therefore, invited all the states to send representatives to Annapolis to attempt to formulate a uniform currency and commerce system for all the states.

In September 1786, only five states sent delegates to the Annapolis meeting: Virginia, Delaware, New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania. These delegates, nevertheless, suggested that a convention be held on May 25, 1787 at the State House in Philadelphia for the purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation. After this recommendation had been submitted to the Confederation Congress, it hesitatingly invited all the states to meet the next year at Philadelphia. Virginia sent seven delegates to this Philadelphia convention: George Washington, John Blair, James Madison, George Mason, James McClurg, Edmund Randolph (Governor at this time) and George Wythe.

Seventy-three individuals had been chosen as delegates from the twelve states, but only fifty-six members were present at the convention. All the states were represented at the convention except Rhode Island. When the convention began on May 25, 1787, George Washington was unanimously chosen President of the convention to preside over the meetings and rules of procedure were adopted. It is significant to note the absence of three of the Virginia Revolutionary Period leaders: Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson and Patrick Henry. Lee declined membership because he believed that, since he was a member of the Confederation Congress and since he thought the revised Articles would be submitted to this Congress for approval, he should not become a member of the Convention to revise the same and, subsequently, be a member of the Confederation Congress which would be asked to pass upon the revised plan. Jefferson was the United States Minister to France at this time and was out of the country. Although Patrick Henry had been elected as a delegate to the convention, he had refused to accept the assignment because he was skeptical about governmental changes which the convention might make. Two Virginians who were present made written comments concerning the type of individuals who represented their states as follows:

(1) George Mason (in a letter to his son)—"America has certainly, upon this occasion, drawn forth her first characters.... The eyes of the U. S. are turned upon this assembly, and their expectations raised to a very anxious degree." Mason's personal attitude toward the responsibility of being a state delegate at this convention is summarized in this remark: "I would not serve upon pecuniary reasons alone in this convention for a thousand pounds a day."

(2) James Madison—"It contains in several instances the most respectable characters in the U. S., and in general may be said to be the best contribution of talents the States could make for the occasion."

The meetings were held secretly behind closed doors because of the grave problems which the convention had to solve. After the delegates began to discuss the necessary changes which had to be made, they realized the impossibility of simply revising the Articles of Confederation and the absolute necessity of writing a new constitution which would make the central government a much stronger political power. James Madison, a most profound student of government, is considered as the most influential member of the convention. He was the most active speaker at the convention and he kept careful notes of the entire session. Madison is regarded as the "Father of the United States Constitution."

One of the first questions to be decided at the convention was the type of organization of the government. Governor Edmund Randolph presented Madison's "Virginia" Plan recommending a strong, central government and one in which each state would be represented in proportion to its population. This plan is sometimes referred to as the "Large State" Plan because most of the larger states favored it: according to this plan, the more population a state had, the greater the representation. The small states had their plan also: it was presented by William Paterson of New Jersey and is known as the "Paterson" or "New Jersey" or "Small State" Plan. The small states favored states' rights rather than a strong, central government and believed that each state should be represented equally regardless of its population. The "Great Compromise" which was finally adopted was a combination of both plans: a bicameral legislature called Congress was to be created consisting of (1) the House of Representatives with membership from each state based upon the population of the state and (2) the Senate with membership based upon equal representation from each state—two Senators from each state. The plan of government finally adopted provided for a strong central government but with the state governments retaining essential reserve powers.

After the Constitution had been completed on September 17, 1787, it was submitted to the Confederation Congress with the recommendation that Congress inform each state legislature about the Constitution and ask for state ratification. The Constitutional requirement for making the document effective was ratification by nine states. Washington was very eager for the Constitution of the United States to be adopted. He wrote many personal letters favoring its adoption including a public letter in which he reminded the states that each state must be willing to make certain concessions for the benefits of the country as a whole.

Thirty-nine of the fifty-six delegates signed the Constitution. Only three of the six delegates from Virginia signed it: George Washington, John Blair and James Madison. Madison, in fact, was consulted for an opinion on almost every phase of the Constitution. During the campaign period for and against ratification, Madison joined Alexander Hamilton and John Jay of New York and contributed to a series of essays called "The Federalist." The essays included a discussion of the meaning of the various provisions of the Constitution and attempted to prove that the federal or central government would not misuse the power granted to it. Madison wrote twenty of the eighty-five essays contained in "The Federalist." This series of essays is believed to have influenced more people to favor the adoption of the Constitution than any other written or oral effort.

The most influential writings against the adoption of the Constitution were authored by Richard Henry Lee in his "Letters of a Federal Farmer." George Mason and Edmund Randolph refused to sign the Constitution of the United States because it contained no bill of rights, it did not provide either for the immediate prohibition of slave traffic or for the eventual abolition of slavery and, in their opinion, gave Congress too much control over navigation and tariff policies. Edmund Randolph, Governor of Virginia and a delegate at the Philadelphia Convention, played an unusual role: he did not sign the Constitution himself because he did not approve of the final document but he did urge the State of Virginia to accept it because he believed that a union of states was necessary. James McClurg and George Wythe did not sign it because they were absent, but they did encourage the ratification of the Constitution by Virginia.

On June 2, 1788, a Virginia State Convention was held in Richmond to determine whether or not Virginia would accept the new Constitution of the United States. There were one hundred and sixty-eight official delegates present, and they elected Edmund Pendleton president of the convention. Sectionalism appeared obvious in the state at this time: the Piedmont area and the southwest area which did not have many slaves opposed ratification while the Tidewater area and the northwest area favored the adoption of the Constitution. James Madison, John Marshall (who actually explained much of the Constitution to the members of the convention), Edmund Randolph, George Wythe and General "Light Horse Harry" Lee spoke on behalf of the Constitution; George Mason, Patrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee, James Monroe and William Grayson spoke very strongly against it. The chief arguments against ratification were that the central government had been given far too much power and the individual states far too little power, that the commerce clause was too powerful and that the continuance of the slave trade was permitted. Finally, after Madison had agreed to suggest and to urge adoption of many amendments, the Virginia convention ratified the Constitution of the United States by the close vote of 89 to 79 on June 26, 1788. It is interesting to note that, at this time, the State of Virginia included the present area of Virginia and the area now included in the States of Kentucky and of West Virginia.

The State of Virginia missed by five days the honor of being the necessary ninth state to ratify the Constitution, New Hampshire having this honor. As Virginia became the tenth state to ratify it, the following declaration was officially recorded: "We, the Delegates of the People of Virginia, ... Do, in the name and in behalf of the People of Virginia, declare and make known, that the powers granted under the Constitution, being derived from the People of the United States, may be resumed by them whensoever the same shall be perverted to their injury or oppression, and that every power not granted thereby remains with them and at their Will; that therefore no right of any denomination can be canceled, abridged, restrained, or modified by the Congress ... or any department or Officer of the United States, except in those instances in which power is given by the Constitution for those purposes: and that, among other essential rights, the liberty of Conscience and of the press cannot be canceled, abridged, restrained or modified by any Authority of the United States." This declaration expressed fear on the part of Virginians concerning the new Constitution. At the same time, the members of the Virginia convention proposed forty amendments which became the bases of the ten amendments of the Bill of Rights in the Constitution of the United States: James Madison introduced the first nine amendments and Richard Henry Lee, the tenth amendment, to the Constitution of the United States—all eventually adopted in 1791.

Between 1783 and 1789, on the domestic scene, Virginia had gained five new counties: Campbell (formed from Bedford County and named for General William H. Campbell, the hero of the Battle of King's Mountain), Greensville (formed from Brunswick County and, later, parts of Sussex County and named for General Nathaniel Greene or Sir Richard Grenville), Franklin (formed from Bedford and Henry Counties and, later, parts of Patrick and named for Benjamin Franklin), Russell (formed from Washington County and named for General William Russell, a military hero also at the Battle of King's Mountain in the Revolutionary War) and Nottoway (formed from Amelia County and named for an Indian tribe, "Nottoway"—the word meaning "snake or enemy"). Two years later, Patrick County was formed from Henry County and was named in honor of the patriot, Patrick Henry.

Another domestic problem during this period concerned the boundary dispute between Pennsylvania and Virginia. When the Penns colonized Pennsylvania, they claimed the 39th degree parallel as their southern boundary. Virginia, however, claimed all the territory as far north as the 40th degree parallel including the choice section of Fort Pitt (now the site of Pittsburgh). After Pennsylvania authorities had established courts at Hanna's Town (now Greensburg), Governor Dunmore of Virginia sent Dr. John Connelly to establish a rival court with competing magistrates in 1773. The struggle for ownership of this area was temporarily postponed during the American Revolution, although the Virginia courts continued to remain in session in western Pennsylvania from 1774 to 1780. Finally, negotiations took place, and an agreement was adopted to allow a survey to be made in the region and to accept a boundary recommended by the joint boundary commission. The Mason and Dixon Line was extended to the southwest corner of Pennsylvania in 1784; the western boundary line of Pennsylvania was permanently agreed upon in 1785-1786.

In the following year, in December, an historical event took place which contributed greatly to science. James Rumsey, a native Marylander who had moved to Bath, Virginia (now Berkeley Springs, West Virginia), was interested in boat-building and in the possibility of steam propulsion. After the Virginia General Assembly had given him exclusive permission to navigate specific types of boats constructed by himself on the state waterways for ten years, he successfully transported six individuals for the first time in a steamboat four miles up the Potomac River near Shepherdstown. Rumsey continued to experiment with additional steamboats on the Potomac. In order to obtain financial assistance, he traveled subsequently to London and ironically died there before his second boat, the "Columbia Maid," had been completely constructed. This event occurred twenty years before Robert Fulton made his historic trip up the Hudson River in the "Clermont."

By 1789 George Washington had retired to Mount Vernon and had become a gentleman farmer at the time of the adoption of the Constitution. He was overseeing his fields on horseback one day when a messenger arrived from New York City informing him that his name had appeared unanimously on the ballot of every elector, electing him as the first President of the United States—"The Father of His Country." The American people still remembered his great leadership qualities during the Revolutionary War and during the Constitutional Convention. Thus, Washington was faced with a most difficult task: to make a new government work successfully though it was practically only in outline form and even though there was opposition and criticism awaiting the first President. Washington was also informed that the new government was to begin operating on March 4, 1789 and that Congress desired that he arrive in New York City for his inauguration on that date.

It took the Congressmen themselves longer to arrive from their various states, however, than they had expected. John Adams, the Vice-President, did not arrive until April 22 from Massachusetts to take his oath of office. Washington had much farther to travel than did John Adams and had many preparations to make before leaving Mount Vernon. He visited Fredericksburg to bid his mother farewell and traveled via stagecoach through Maryland, Delaware and Pennsylvania to New York. Roads were in poor condition making traveling very slow and Washington was such a prominent figure that he was stopped along the way by his old friends, especially in New Jersey. One significant incident was his welcome at Trenton, New Jersey, part of which consisted of a presentation of flowers by thirteen young ladies dressed in white, symbolic of the thirteen stars of the flag of the United States and of the thirteen states that had honored him by electing him to the Presidency. When he arrived at the New York ferry, thirteen sailors in red, white and blue uniforms were waiting to row him across the Hudson River to New York City. On April 30, 1789, Washington took his official oath of office in Federal Hall as the first President of the United States. A marble statue stands today on the spot on Wall Street where this event took place. New York became the first capital city of the United States. Since the capital was changed to Philadelphia in the following year, Washington was the only President of the United States to be inaugurated in New York City.

State and National Events (1789-1860)

Since Washington was a strong believer in the Constitution of the United States and had put forth much effort in getting it ratified, he tried conscientiously to set up a government satisfactory to all Americans. He wisely used his talent of recognizing individuals with a particular skill when he selected his first cabinet to advise him: Thomas Jefferson (Virginia), Secretary of Foreign Affairs, Alexander Hamilton (New York), Secretary of the Treasury, and Henry Knox (Massachusetts), Secretary of War. Edmund Randolph, a Virginian, was appointed Attorney-General, but this office did not become a cabinet post until 1814. The men holding these positions for the first time had a heavy responsibility in deciding specifically the range of duties each position should include and in properly carrying out these duties.

The practice of "log-rolling," defined as the "joining together of politicians to mutually further each other's plans of activities," was followed at this early time of our new government. The question had arisen in Congress whether or not Congress should assume the state debts, most of which had been accumulated during the Revolutionary War. The Congressmen who favored such assumption believed that such action would not only tend to strengthen security and confidence of the American people in their new government but would also make it easier for the United States to borrow money, either at home or from a foreign country. Since Virginia and many of the Southern States had already assumed and had paid most of their debts, the Virginia legislature opposed this bill strongly in 1790 and believed that it placed an unjust hardship upon the State. This state legislative objection was the first official action of a state against a federal bill. Since the Northern States preferred a location in the north for the national capital, Hamilton and Jefferson encouraged their friends to vote for each other's proposals. Hamilton's friends in the north voted for locating the capital along the Potomac in return for Jefferson's friends in the south voting for the assumption of state debts by the national government.

There had been discussion for a long time about changing the location of the national capital from New York City to a more central location along the Atlantic seaboard. When a site along the Potomac River was finally agreed upon, Maryland and Virginia agreed to cede part of its land for the establishment of a Federal District to become the seat of government of the United States. On December 3, 1789, Virginia ceded thirty and three-quarters square miles of land including the town of Alexandria and part of Fairfax County. The stone locating the original southern corner boundary, officially laid by Dr. Elisha Cullen Dick, may still be seen near Jones Point, Alexandria.

Early efforts to commercialize waterways materialized in 1790. One of the earliest commercial canals built in either Virginia or in the United States as a whole was the James River Canal. It was constructed by the James River Company, and, although it was only seven miles in length, it connected Richmond with Westham and was parallel to the James River. This marked the beginning of the canal-building era in the United States.

An event which affected the United States and the State of Virginia occurred in 1792 when Kentucky was admitted into the Union as the fifteenth state (Vermont had entered as the fourteenth one in 1791). This action deprived the State of Virginia of approximately 75,000 inhabitants, of 40,395 square miles of territory and of nine counties. Kentucky was originally part of Fincastle County, Virginia and later had gained status as an independent county in Virginia, called Kentucky County. Virginia gave the necessary consent for the independence of Kentucky, required before statehood could be granted. The boundaries of the State of Virginia thereafter remained fixed from 1792 until 1861 when West Virginia became a separate state.

Washington, during his Presidency, showed his ability to lead in civilian affairs as well as in military affairs. His diplomatic ability predominated in the torn loyalty toward England and toward France when these nations fought each other in 1793: he issued the Neutrality Proclamation whereby the United States would take neither side in this conflict. Throughout his two terms, he created precedents and made decisions of lasting value for the United States. Such a precedent was his refusal to run for a third time as President of the United States, a precedent which was not broken until 1940 when Franklin D. Roosevelt accepted the nomination for the Presidency.

While Washington was President, the population of Virginia continued to grow. Six new counties were created during this period: Wythe (formed from Montgomery County with later additions from Montgomery and Grayson Counties and named in honor of George Wythe, a Virginia signer of the Declaration of Independence, a famous lawyer and the first Professor of Law in the United States), Mathews (formed from Gloucester County and named for Major Thomas Mathews of the Revolutionary War), Bath (formed from Augusta, Botetourt and Greenbrier Counties and named because of the medicinal springs located in the area), Grayson (formed from Wythe County and, later, additions from Patrick County and named for Colonel William Grayson, a United States Senator from Virginia), Lee (formed from Russell County and, later, additions from Scott County and named for General Henry Lee, Governor of Virginia, as well as an outstanding military leader), and Madison (formed from Culpeper County and named for James Madison, a state legislator and member of the United States House of Representatives during this period).

After John Adams had been elected to the Presidency in 1796, the Democratic-Republican Party began to use the typical political method of attacking the party in power, namely the Federalists, through newspaper articles and through written pamphlets. Since many of the foreigners who had come to America at this time were Democratic-Republican in their political beliefs, numerous articles criticizing President John Adams and his administration were written by them. In order to combat these political attacks, the Federalist leaders were responsible for getting two most unusual laws passed: the Alien and Sedition Laws. The Alien Act provided that the residence time required of foreigners for naturalization (the process whereby a foreigner becomes a citizen) was to be fourteen years instead of five years and that the President was henceforth authorized to imprison or deport without trial foreigners whom he considered dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States or to allow others to remain. The Sedition Act stated that any person convicted of defaming, either by spoken or by written word, the government of the United States or the President of the United States or the Congress of the United States was subject to a fine of not more than $2,000 and to imprisonment for not more than two years.

Several Federalists considered the passage of these laws unjust. Thomas Jefferson, the Vice-President of the United States at the time of their passage, decided to attract the attention of voters to the passage of such laws. He drew up resolutions in 1789 which stated that: (1) the Alien and Sedition Laws were unconstitutional because the President of the United States had no power to imprison or deport any person without a judicial trial and because Congress did not have the right to limit the freedom of speech and of press and (2) since the Union was a compact of states and since the federal government had only the particular powers granted to it by the states, each state had the right to decide the constitutionality of Congressional laws. Because these resolutions were first introduced into the Kentucky legislature, they were later called the Kentucky Resolutions. At the same time, James Madison drew up similar resolutions which were introduced into the Virginia Assembly. The Virginia Resolutions are significant since they explain the theory of "strict construction" (that the federal government has only those powers specifically delegated to it) and they illustrate the strong "states' rights" feeling which existed in the State of Virginia. Virginia and Kentucky were the only two states to openly protest the Alien and Sedition Acts. Many of the northern states denied on this occasion the right of a state to judge a federal law. They affirmed, on the contrary, the belief that only the federal courts can decide the constitutionality of a federal law.

On December 14, 1799, George Washington died at Mount Vernon where he had retired after his Presidency. His military genius and brilliant statesmanship are probably best summarized in the "Funeral Oration upon President Washington" by Henry Lee in his now-famous phrase: "First in War, First in Peace and First in the Hearts of His Countrymen."

In 1800, Virginia was considered first among the sixteen states of the Union (Vermont, Kentucky and Tennessee having been admitted into the Union before 1800) in wealth and in population: 447,800 whites and 359,777 Negroes. The influence of Virginia in the political, economic and social life of the country was a profound one. The majority of residents now consisted of "average" individuals who regarded the democratic ideas of Thomas Jefferson as a basic philosophy for everyday living. The polite courtesy and hospitality of the olden days still remained, but many of the traditional, dignified ceremonies had become outmoded. The descendants of the aristocratic planters of the early nineteenth century were usually people of limited means and limited acreage because the war and its aftermath had decreased much of their wealth. However, the typical Virginian who could afford it still preferred to live in the country, own horses, dogs and fine cattle, enjoy fox hunting and the social gatherings of friends, celebrate traditional activities and understand and cherish the rich heritage which was theirs.

In 1800, Thomas Jefferson, a native of Shadwell, Virginia, was elected third President of the United States. He was the first President to be inaugurated at Washington, D. C. His ideas concerning government were so numerous and thought-provoking that his political philosophy has been termed "Jeffersonian Democracy." He had strong faith in the ability of the common man, believed in government economy and practiced this belief throughout his administration. He exhibited his broadmindedness by allowing many government officials of opposite political party beliefs to retain their same positions after he became President and he was a strong advocate of States' Rights. After Jefferson became President, he appointed John Marshall of Germantown and Richmond as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Marshall had been a member of the state legislature, an outstanding lawyer, a Congressman and had served as Secretary of State under President John Adams. John Marshall remained Chief Justice for thirty-four years and holds the record for length of service on the Supreme Court of the United States. He was personally responsible for creating a strong foundation for the Supreme Court. Although he was the second Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, it was during his judgeship that for the first time, a Congressional law was declared unconstitutional in the case of Marbury versus Madison. This decision greatly strengthened the theory of judicial review of national legislation. It is interesting to note that John Marshall was as strong a Federalist as his cousin, Thomas Jefferson, was a strong "States' Rights" man.

While Jefferson as President was solving national problems, his home state was solving problems, too. In August 1800, Virginia had its first organized slave insurrection. Led by Gabriel, approximately one thousand slaves in the area around Richmond decided to march on Richmond and massacre the white inhabitants there. However, at the scheduled time for the march to begin, a severe rainstorm delayed the march. During the delay, Pharaoh, one of the Negroes, decided to warn the Richmonders of their impending disaster. In spite of the heavy rains and the fact that it became necessary for him to swim certain swollen streams without being caught by one of his own group, he continued to Richmond and warned the authorities in time. He informed them of the proposed plan to kill the male inhabitants, capture the women inhabitants, seize the public arms and create a general slave insurrection. Consequently, the conspirators, including Gabriel, were caught, convicted and executed. The Virginia Assembly rewarded Pharaoh for his courageous act by giving him complete freedom.

While the State of Virginia was increasing its counties, the United States was beginning to expand beyond its original boundary established after the Revolutionary War. President Jefferson had heard rumors that Spain had ceded Louisiana back to France in secret diplomatic relations. If true, such a condition could ruin American trade along the Mississippi River and could suggest a possibility of a French empire in America. Jefferson decided to have the government of the United States purchase the Island of Orleans, near the mouth of the Mississippi River. After the United States Ambassador to France had been unable to purchase only the Island of Orleans, Jefferson sent James Monroe, a native of Westmoreland County, to assist the Ambassador. In 1803, the treaty making the purchase of Louisiana, that vast area of land west of the Mississippi, official was ratified by the United States. This purchase added 827,000 square miles to the area of the land under the jurisdiction of the United States government at the cost of $15,000,000.

President Jefferson was also very much interested in the Oregon Country. He had made frequent attempts to have this region explored but all his attempts were unsuccessful. However, after the purchase of Louisiana, he persuaded the federal government to finance, by means of a $2500 appropriation, an official government expedition to make the first overland route to the Pacific Ocean and to explore the region which the United States had recently acquired. He selected Captain Meriwether Lewis of Ivy, Virginia, to head this expedition and Lieutenant William Clark, a very close Virginian friend of Lewis' to accompany him. Their group left St. Louis in the spring of 1804, traveled up the Missouri River, spent a rigid winter in an area now located in North Dakota, continued traveling up the Missouri in the spring of 1805, crossed the Rocky Mountains, and built and paddled canoes until they reached the mouth of the Columbia River in November, 1805. There they built a fort near the present site of Astoria. They remained on the Pacific Coast during the winter and returned to St. Louis in 1806. Lewis and Clark were aided considerably in their travel route directions by an Indian woman guide, Sacajawea. This expedition to the Northwest furnished the best claim of the United States in later ownership disputes with England.

Aaron Burr, long the political opponent of Alexander Hamilton, lived in Petersburg. In 1807, Burr was accused of a conspiracy to invade Mexico, to snatch it from Spanish control and to establish an independent Mexican government with himself as the self-appointed ruler. Furthermore, he was accused of having laid plans for setting up a government in the western territory of the United States with the objective of eventually organizing this area into a separate, independent government with himself the self-appointed ruler. Burr was officially tried on a charge of treason at the State Capitol Building in Richmond. Chief Justice John Marshall was the presiding judge. Jefferson, who had disliked Burr for political reasons for a long time and who believed that Burr was guilty of the aforementioned treasonous actions, wanted Burr convicted. Although the trial involved many political entanglements, Burr was finally acquitted.

During the same year, Virginia made national headlines again when the "Leopard-Chesapeake" Affair took place. France and Britain had been having personnel problems with their navy crews, each accusing the other of trying to encourage desertions. Britain had sent a fleet over to Norfolk in an attempt to intercept some French ships harbored in the Chesapeake Bay. One of the British ships had its entire crew desert, and it was believed that they had dashed to Norfolk and would be hiring out soon on a French or American ship. The British captain of the fleet had been informed that these crew members supposedly had enlisted on the "Chesapeake," a new American naval vessel. A British vessel, the "Leopard," was ordered to search the "Chesapeake" outside the jurisdiction of the United States. Consequently, the "Leopard" followed the "Chesapeake" out beyond Cape Henry and then demanded that the "Chesapeake" be searched by British officers. When the "Chesapeake," under the command of Commodore James Barron, denied having any deserters and refused the right to search, the "Leopard" approached very closely the "Chesapeake" and fired at it broadside. Three Americans were killed, seventeen others wounded and four deserters were surprisingly found aboard the "Chesapeake." Although many Americans clamored for war as a result of this incident, Jefferson, who still preferred peace, retaliated by having Congress pass the Embargo Act whereby no American ship could depart for any foreign port. Jefferson believed the lack of American exports would cause the countries of Europe to cease the practice of impressment of American seamen. The Americans, however, suffered more from this act than did the French and the British; eventually, it was repealed and a law was passed allowing American vessels to trade with any country except England and France. By the end of Jefferson's administration, nevertheless, the American people were very restless, and in some sections of the country war was believed to be inevitable with England or with France.

On March 4, 1809, Virginia had another one of her sons, James Madison, inaugurated as President of the United States. He was born in Port Conway, Virginia, and, after graduating from Princeton, he had fought in the Revolutionary War. He had served in the state legislature, had been a member of the Second Continental Congress, had been a member of the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia where he had earned the title "Father of the Constitution of the United States" and had contributed to the "Federalist" papers encouraging the adoption of the Constitution. After serving in the United States House of Representatives, he had retired from national politics and had centered his interest upon state government functions. He had written the "Virginia Resolutions" and had served as United States Secretary of State at the request of President Jefferson. Therefore, he came to the Presidency well prepared to assume presidential duties.

In contrast with his desire for peace, Madison held the office of President of the United States during the War of 1812 with England. Only a few battles were fought near Virginia in this war. The British had as one of their objectives the capture of the City of Norfolk. George Cockburn, a British Admiral, entered Chesapeake Bay with a fleet of approximately 1800 men, and they plundered many plantations along the coast of Maryland and Virginia. An American ship, the "U. S. S. Dolphin," was captured by the British ship, "St. Domingo," in the Rappahannock River. A sea battle was later fought at Craney Island, located at the entrance of Norfolk Harbor where American sailors, marines and militia men were defending the small island. As the British rowed toward the island shore on barges, heavy artillery fire sank many of the boats causing hundreds of the Britishers to drown. The British subsequently withdrew and Norfolk escaped serious damage. The British soon desired to attack Hampton. They successfully pillaged the town and proceeded to the Carolinas. Several Virginians participated in the War of 1812 and the students of Hampden-Sydney College, as in the Revolutionary War, volunteered as an entire student body to fight for their country.

Virginia became a famous place of refuge during the War of 1812. When the British invaded Washington in August 1814, President Madison and his wife, Dolly Madison, fled from the White House on August 24 to Salona, a house located in Falls Church. It is believed that Dolly Madison crossed the Chain Bridge over the Potomac River and traveled rapidly over the secondary roads until she finally reached the house of Reverend and Mrs. William Maffitt. Dolly Madison carried with her the Declaration of Independence and the famous portrait of George Washington painted by Gilbert Stuart. Mrs. Maffitt quickly admitted Dolly Madison, and the President himself and some of his cabinet members arrived later with Reverend Maffitt. They could see the burning White House from the Maffitt residence. Although the President had to depart shortly afterwards, Dolly Madison stayed there for the duration of the war.

After his Presidency had ended, James Madison returned to Montpelier, the family homestead near Orange, where he lived until his death in 1836.

While Madison was occupied with national affairs, there were several important events happening in his home state. In 1809-1810, a Literary Fund for Virginia was established as an aid to public education by providing money for school expenses. The state legislature under the direction of Governor John Tyler, Sr., provided that "all escheats (land the title to which was reclaimed by the state), confiscations, penalties and forfeitures, and all rights in personal property found derelict (deserted or abandoned) should be appropriated to the encouragement of learning." As time passed, this fund expanded considerably and was used to improve elementary education. Only the most proficient students were allowed to attend public secondary schools. The General Assembly encouraged the establishment of classical schools and academies via revenue secured from lotteries. In 1816, the Federal Government paid $1,210,550 to Virginia in return for a loan granted to the Federal Government by Virginia for the defraying of expenses incurred during the War of 1812. This payment was allotted to the Literary Fund.

From 1800 through 1816, the State of Virginia had four new counties formed: Tazewell (formed from Wythe and Russell Counties and named for Henry Tazewell, a United States Senator), Giles (created from Montgomery, Monroe and Tazewell Counties and named for William Branch Giles, a Congressman from Virginia who served four terms), Nelson (formed from Amherst County and named for General Thomas Nelson, military leader and Governor of Virginia in 1781), and Scott (formed from Lee, Russell and Washington Counties and named for General Winfield Scott, lawyer and military leader).

In 1811, Richmond suffered from a dreadful tragedy. Richmond had grown in approximately twenty-five years from a village to a thriving city. As the capital city of the state, it had become a center of wealth, social activities and entertainment. The leading actors and actresses of the country played at the Richmond Theater with pride. On the evening of December 26, 1811 as a play was in progress, the scenery at the back of the stage caught fire. When an actor shouted "The house is on fire!", chaos and confusion resulted. In addition to the flames which rapidly roared through the theater, the panic and hysteria contributed to the death of seventy-three individuals, including Governor George W. Smith and many other distinguished citizens. Gilbert Hunt, a slave, is credited with saving approximately twenty women and children by catching them as they were hurled to safety from flaming windows. The doors of this theater had been constructed in such a way that they only opened inwardly. Thus, when the audience madly rushed for an exit, numerous individuals were crushed since the doors could not be opened outwardly. As a result of this terrible tragedy, theater doors in Virginia and in other states were constructed in the future to open outwardly from the inside. A structure of stuccoed brick, known as Monumental Church, has been built by the architect, Robert Mills, upon the site of the old theater, and on a monument at the door is an inscription bearing the names of those who died in this incident.

In 1816, thirty-five western counties of Virginia held a convention at Staunton and demanded that the General Assembly be informed of their grievances and be asked to adjust same. After the War of 1812, the western counties believed that the State Constitution of 1776 was no longer appropriate and that the earlier counties, in spite of their longer political experiences, were greatly over-represented in proportion to their population as compared with the population of the western counties. One particular criticism was the representation plan of membership in the General Assembly. Although the white population was much greater in number west of the Blue Ridge than in the east, the western counties had only four delegates in the Assembly in comparison to thirteen delegates from the east. Therefore, these convention delegates demanded a revised or new state constitution which would include fair treatment, in their opinion, for the western counties of Virginia. The Staunton convention of 1816 caused other residents of Virginia, especially the politicians, to realize that this mountainous area was increasing in population and in interest in state and in national affairs and that it expected a similar increase in power and in influence in the state government of Virginia.

In 1817, James Monroe was inaugurated the Fifth President of the United States. A native of Westmoreland County, Monroe had had considerable political and diplomatic experience before becoming President. He had been a practicing lawyer in Fredericksburg, a Revolutionary War participant who had been wounded in the Battle of Trenton, New Jersey, a delegate to the Virginia Constitutional Convention at Williamsburg, a member of the Virginia General Assembly, a United States Senator, an American envoy to France, a Governor of Virginia, a United States Minister to France where he helped negotiate the Louisiana Purchase, a United States Minister to Spain, a United States Secretary of State and a United States Secretary of War under President Madison. His two presidential terms are often referred to as the "Era of Good Feeling" because wars and international disputes were unknown in this period.

Foreign policy was a highlight of Monroe's two years. A treaty with Spain in 1819 transferred East Florida to the United States, included an official admission that West Florida rightfully belonged to the United States, provided that the United States would assume and pay claims of citizens of the United States against the Spanish government amounting to five million dollars and defined the boundary of the Louisiana Purchase. Another incident taking place in this general area of the United States was the permission granted by the government of Mexico to Stephen Fuller Austin, a native of Austinville, Virginia, to establish a settlement for colonization on a land grant in Texas. He became the leader of the section and participated in so many happenings in the history of Texas that later, the capital, Austin, was named in his honor.

While Monroe was President, Congress had a difficult situation to face. Missouri applied for admission to the Union in 1819. Since there were eleven free and eleven slave states in the Union at this time, there was equal representation in the Senate from the North and from the South. However, the North had increased much more rapidly in population than had the South with the result that there were 105 Northern representatives in the House of Representatives and only 81 Southern representatives in the same body. Therefore, the South did not want any additional free states admitted to the Union at this time to upset the equal balance in the Senate. Consequently, a bill which had been proposed to admit Missouri to the Union with the understanding that slavery was to be abolished there directly upon such admission failed to pass in the Senate. In the same year, Maine, a free state, applied for statehood. Slavery had become a significant sectional issue by 1819 and Henry Clay, a native of Hanover County, proposed the now-famous Missouri Compromise of 1820: Maine was to be admitted as a free state, Misouri as a slave state; slavery was to be forever excluded in the rest of the Louisiana Purchase Territory north of the parallel of 36´ 30´´ (southern boundary of Missouri). Although Henry Clay, later known as the "Great Pacificator" or "Peacemaker" because of his ability to make compromises in difficult situations, moved to Kentucky in his "twenties," he studied law with the famous Virginia lawyer, George Wythe, and acquired many of his political beliefs in Virginia. President Monroe signed the Missouri Compromise expressing his approval of this bill.

A new trend in foreign policy was formulated by President Monroe, with the help of his Secretary of State, John Quincy Adams, in his annual message to Congress on December 2, 1823. The Monroe Doctrine, as it was later termed, stated that there was to be no further European colonization in the Western Hemisphere, that no European nation was to interfere in the government of any nation in the Western Hemisphere and that violation of either of the previous principles would be considered unfriendly to the government of the United States. In return, the government of the United States would not interfere in the governments of Europe.

From the time of the Revolutionary War, societies opposed to slavery were organized in the United States. Religious and non-religious groups favored the emancipation of the slaves, but the greatest problem facing those who favored freedom for the slaves was the finding of a suitable environment for the freed, uneducated Negroes. The South which had the greatest number of Negroes would have favored emancipation much more readily if this problem could have been solved satisfactorily. Washington and Jefferson both opposed slavery and Washington in his will provided for the freeing of his slaves upon the death of his wife. Jefferson proposed that the Negroes be freed and then sent out of the United States. Monroe likewise strongly opposed slavery and suggested that the Negroes be allowed to settle in an independent country of their own.

In 1816, an American Colonization Society was formed which was granted permission by the Congress of the United States to send emancipated volunteer Negro slaves to Liberia, Africa where they could organize an independent country of their own. The Virginia legislature heartily supported this project. Bushrod Washington, a nephew of George Washington, served as one of the presidents of this national colonization society. John Marshall was the first president of the state branch at Richmond. The capital of Liberia, an independent republic since 1847, is Monrovia, named in honor of James Monroe, who personally urged the establishment of this independent country for Negroes.

On March 4, 1825, the "Virginia Dynasty" ended, and President Monroe returned to his home state, Virginia, where he remained until the death of his wife. Virginia had earned the title of "Mother of Presidents" because it had furnished four of the first five Presidents of the United States: George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and James Monroe. By 1825, Virginia had lost its first rank in population to New York State, primarily because of the large number of immigrants in the North. The population of Virginia, however, had passed the million mark.

During Monroe's presidency, an ex-President of the United States undertook a task in his home state which he had patiently waited to perform. In 1819, the Virginia legislature passed an act establishing a state university in Virginia. Jefferson had worked very hard to get this personal ambition of his realized because he believed that a state has the obligation of educating its citizens. He constantly discussed his idea with influential men of the time and was elated when the University of Virginia was finally created by law. Jefferson personally recommended the accepted site of Central College in Charlottesville, drew up the plans for the university building and grounds, chose the materials for construction, selected the workmen and then assumed the responsibility of personally supervising and directing the actual building project. One of the outstanding architectural characteristics of the University grounds is the famous Serpentine Wall designed and built by Jefferson himself. Jefferson's interest did not cease with the supervision and construction of the buildings but extended to the intellectual area with his outlining the course of study which was followed carefully at the University for several years. The University of Virginia was opened for students for the first time in 1825 with an enrollment of forty students and seven faculty members. It has continued to be an outstanding institution for higher education in the United States. This institution, unlike the former ones in America, was independent of a church and was the first institution to offer the elective system of subject matter, allowing students to make their choice with music and liberal arts first included in any curriculum of higher education. Jefferson thus participated significantly in the education field in addition to making political, historical and inventive contributions.

In 1829 the citizens of Virginia voted for a special state convention to be held for the purpose of drafting a new state constitution. When the delegates met in Richmond on October 5, ex-President James Madison was selected as President of this Virginia Convention. Other notables present included ex-President Monroe, Chief Justice Marshall and John Randolph. It was soon obvious that there were two distinct types of delegates: the eastern "conservatives" and the western "reformers." Debates and discussions became so heated that this convention is often compared to the federal convention of 1787 which exposed sharp differences between the North and the South as separate sections. Governor William B. Giles, A. P. Upshur, Benjamin Leigh, John Randolph and Littleton Waller represented the east or Tidewater section while Alexander Campbell, John R. Cooke, Philip Doddridge and Charles Faulkner represented the western or mountainous counties. The most objectionable features of the State Constitution of 1776, in the opinion of the western counties delegates, were the following: (1) the voting requirement of freehold land tenure, (2) the election of the Governor by the state legislature rather than by the voters themselves, (3) the actual carrying out of some of the Governor's duties by a nine-man Council of State, (4) the equal representation in the House of Delegates from each county regardless of population, and (5) a procedure in the local and state courts which often resulted in favoritism. The easterner combatted the criticism about representation with the fact that he paid much higher taxes on his land (in some instances as much as nine times more per acre). After lengthy discussions, the new state constitution was finally written and recommended for adoption. The following changes were included: (1) voting was extended to leaseholders and householders, (2) the Governor was chosen by a joint ballot of the Senate and the House of Delegates, (3) the power and the responsibility of the Governor was increased and the number of men and the powers of the Council of State were decreased, (4) the representation of the western counties in the Assembly was increased slightly, and (5) state courts were slightly revised but county courts were practically unchanged. The Constitution of 1829 was adopted, and John Floyd was the first Governor elected under the new system.

The strong feeling of states' rights in Virginia became apparent once more. When President Andrew Jackson threatened to use armed force upon South Carolina in his attempt to coerce South Carolina into paying Federal taxes, according to the Tariff of 1828 ("The Tariff of Abominations"), Virginians became very alarmed. John Randolph, a sick man at the time, traveled throughout the country denouncing Jackson's coercive attitude. Virginia then sent Benjamin Watkins Leigh to South Carolina to try to bring peace within the Union again and to prevent South Carolina from seceding from the Union. Governor John Floyd of Virginia stated that federal troops would meet armed opposition if President Jackson ordered them to march through Virginia to South Carolina and to force South Carolina to pay the exorbitant tariff rates. Henry Clay's compromise tariff law providing for gradually reduced tariff rates prevented possible secession from occurring at this time.

In August 1831, a Negro preacher of Southampton County, Nat Turner, started a local slave insurrection by persuading the Negro slaves that it was time to kill the white people. Sixty whites, mostly women and children, were killed before the rebellion could be suppressed. Nat Turner and twelve of his accomplices were hung. Many Virginians believed that Nat Turner's Rebellion took place as a direct result of the writings of William Lloyd Garrison of Massachusetts who published the "Liberator," a newspaper which demanded the immediate abolition of slavery. The southerners, in general, were so aroused by this rebellion that southern legislatures passed laws prohibiting slaves from being taught to read. In fact, a reward was offered for Garrison himself. Many southern states passed resolutions requesting the northern states to forbid the publication of abolitionist papers. In 1832 at a regular session of the Virginia General Assembly, an act was proposed whereby all slaves born after July 4, 1840 were to be free and to be removed from the State of Virginia. The act was defeated in the House of Delegates by a close vote of 67 to 60.

In 1831, Cyrus Hall McCormick of Rockbridge County invented the "Virginia Reaper," a mechanical harvester which could harvest wheat at a much faster rate than previously harvested by hand with a sickle or a cradle. He did not get it patented, however, until three years later. This was a most significant invention for the State of Virginia as well as for the nation as a whole. The Virginia Reaper affected grain, as the cotton gin had affected cotton, by making it possible for grain to be grown and harvested in much larger quantities. When Virginians first used the reaper, Virginia's total wheat production increased so rapidly that Virginia ranked fourth among the wheat-raising states in 1840. However, the climate and soil of the West were more conducive to wheat-raising than in Virginia, and, when the western farmers heard about the Virginia Reaper, they were anxious to acquire such a machine for their own use. The usual journey for such reapers included a wagon trip from Rockbridge County over the Blue Ridge Mountains to Scottsville, a canal trip from there to Richmond, a boat trip from Richmond down the James River to the Atlantic Ocean, from Norfolk an ocean trip to New Orleans and then a boat trip up the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers to their specific destination in Kentucky or Ohio—a water trip of approximately 3,000 miles. Since the demand for his invention was much greater in the West, McCormick moved from Virginia to Chicago to build his factory in order that he could reduce his shipping costs considerably. However, one may still see one of the original binders at Walnut Grove, the restored McCormick homestead located near Midway, Virginia.

In 1836, Samuel Houston, a native Virginian of Rockbridge County who had migrated to Texas, became the heroic leader at the Battle of San Jacinto in the Texas Revolt from Mexico. General Houston with a small group of Texans captured Santa Anna, President of Mexico, in this battle and forced him to grant Texas its independence from Mexico. Houston became the first President of the Republic of Texas and, later, the first Governor of the State of Texas after its annexation to the United States. The City of Houston was named in his honor.

On November 11, 1839, the Virginia Military Institute, the first state military school in the United States, was founded at Lexington. This school was located adjacent to the Washington Academy which is now known as Washington and Lee University. The Virginia Military Institute was greatly appreciated because it was no longer necessary for the Southern young men to travel to West Point for military training and discipline. V. M. I. opened originally with twenty-three cadets and two teachers: Francis Smith and J. T. L. Preston, a lawyer who is accredited with having the concept of a state military institute. It became the first normal school in the state because during the first year of its existence, the state legislature passed a law stating that the training of teachers was to be considered as its chief objective. When the War between the States took place, V. M. I. supplied the Confederate forces with many of its military leaders, earning for itself the title, "The West Point of the Confederacy." At the Battle of New Market in 1864, V. M. I. cadets led by General John C. Breckinridge defeated the Union Army by the remarkable capture of a Union battery.

From 1822 to 1850 thirteen additional counties had been created: Alleghany (formed from Bath, Botetourt and Monroe Counties and named for the Indian word, "Alleghany" meaning "Lost"), Page (formed from Rockingham and Shenandoah Counties and named in honor of John Page, Virginia Governor [1802-1805]), Floyd (formed from Montgomery County and later, part of Franklin County and named for John Floyd, Virginia Governor [1830-1834]), Smyth (formed from Washington and Wythe Counties and named for Alexander Smyth, Inspector-General of the Army in 1812 and a Congressman), Rappahannock (formed from Culpeper County and named for the Rappahannock Indian tribe which lived along the Rappahannock River which flows in this county), Clark (formed from Frederick and named for General George Rogers Clark), Warren (formed from Shenandoah and Frederick Counties and named for Major General Joseph Warren who died in the Battle of Bunker Hill), Roanoke (formed from Botetourt County and named for the term, "Roanoke," which was used by the colonists to indicate the shell-beads which the Indians used for money and for decoration), Greene (formed from Orange County and named for General Nathaniel Greene of the Revolutionary War), Pulaski (formed from Montgomery and Wythe Counties and named for Count Casimir Pulaski, Revolutionary War Polish Patriot), Carroll (formed from Grayson County and named in honor of Charles Carroll of Carrollton), Appomattox (formed from Buckingham, Prince Edward, Charlotte and Campbell Counties and named from the Indian word, "Appomattox," meaning "tobacco plant country") and Highland (created from Pendleton and Bath Counties and named for the extremely high altitude of this mountainous area).

In 1841, William Henry Harrison became the ninth President of the United States and John Tyler became the Vice-President of the United States. Both were born in Charles City County, approximately twenty-four miles from Richmond. William Henry Harrison had successfully defeated the Indian chief, Tecumseh, and his brother, "The Prophet," at Tippecanoe River in Indiana. From this experience he earned the title, "Old Tippecanoe" which became a part of the 1840 presidential campaign slogan: "Tippecanoe and Tyler too." William Henry Harrison has a most unique distinction in the history of the United States in that he served the shortest term of any President—March 4, 1841 to April 4, 1841. Upon his death from pneumonia, believed contracted during the inauguration ceremonies, the other Virginian, John Tyler, succeeded to the Presidency. Tyler had been a Congressman, a state legislator, a Governor of Virginia and a United States Senator before becoming President. During his term of office, the United States and Canada agreed upon a final boundary in the Treaty of Washington. Tyler approved the annexation of Texas to the Union near the end of his Presidential administration.

The annexation of Texas to the United States caused bitter feeling between Mexico and the United States. In the Mexican War which followed, two Virginians, General Zachary Taylor of Orange County and General Winfield Scott of Dinwiddie County, participated in an outstanding manner: the former, in charge of the campaign at Monterey and at Buena Vista and the latter, in charge of the campaign at Vera Cruz and Mexico City. Other Virginians who received first-hand military experience during the Mexican War were Robert E. Lee, Thomas J. Jackson and Joseph E. Johnston.

On September 7, 1846, the land including the town of Alexandria (originally Belhaven) which Virginia had ceded to Congress in 1789 was retroceded to Fairfax County. In the following year, Alexandria County was formed from that part of the District of Columbia which had formerly been a part of Fairfax County and the town of Alexandria became the county seat. Five years later, the town of Alexandria became the city of Alexandria through a charter regulation of the General Assembly, and its status as an independent city (not subject to county jurisdiction) was granted.

While Alexandria was changing from a town to a city, another Virginian was elected President of the United States. Zachary Taylor, a native of Orange County, became the twelfth President of the United States. He had achieved national fame during the Mexican War and had earned the title "Old Rough and Ready." He defeated his military colleague, General Winfield Scott, at the Whig convention by winning the presidential candidacy and proceeded to defeat Martin Van Buren for the Presidency. After serving only sixteen months of his term, he died of typhus on July 9, 1850. The most important issue during his administration was the slavery controversy.

As in the slavery issue in 1820, Henry Clay once more proposed a compromise measure in an attempt to prevent, or at least postpone, a secession movement. The Compromise of 1850 was eventually passed and is often referred to as the "Omnibus Bill" because it included many miscellaneous provisions, namely: (1) California was to be admitted as a free state, (2) slavery limitation in the Mexican cession land was to be decided upon by the residents of the particular area involved, (3) Texas was to pay ten million dollars for giving up its claim to territory west and north of its present boundary, (4) slave trade but not slavery was to be prohibited in the District of Columbia, and (5) a more effective fugitive slave law was to be passed and to be enforced.

While the United States government had numerous national problems with which to cope during this period, Virginia had several governmental problems. In 1850-1851, a second state constitutional convention was held. The age-old feud concerning representation, voting qualifications and election of the Governor continued until, finally, a compromise was reached. Main provisions of the compromise were: (1) every white male citizen, except the insane, minors, paupers and criminals, was to be allowed to vote from that time forward, (2) the Governor was to be elected directly by the voters themselves rather than by the General Assembly and his term was to be extended from three to four years, (3) the Council of State was to be abolished, (4) membership in the House of Delegates was to be selected upon the basis of population, thereby giving the western counties a majority number; membership in the Senate was to be based upon population and property, thereby giving the eastern counties a majority, and (5) the voters were to be allowed to vote for judges, county officials and members of the Board of Public Works. In addition, the General Assembly was to meet every other year instead of annually. The 1851 State Constitution was ratified by the voters by an overwhelming majority at the next election. The western counties of Virginia had finally been recognized as an important area whose ideas and opinions were to be considered seriously. Although the economic and social life of the inhabitants of the western part of Virginia were different from those of the inhabitants of the eastern part of Virginia, this Constitution which granted the western counties most of their desired reforms fostered better unity within the state.

In 1855, a dreadful epidemic of yellow fever spread throughout Norfolk and approximately one tenth of its total population succumbed. A Negro gravedigger, nicknamed "Yellow Fever Jack," was considered the hero of this situation because he painstakingly kept burying the dead until he too died from the fever. A monument has been erected in his honor in the Norfolk Cemetery.

In 1857 James Ethan Allen Gibbs, a native of Rockbridge County, secured a patent to make a "twisted loop rotary hook sewing machine," an invention which he had created as a result of watching his mother sew by hand. He was unaware at the time of Elias Howe's sewing machine invention of 1846. After a few years, James A. Willcox added some improvements to Gibbs' sewing machine, and their combined efforts resulted in the Willcox and Gibbs Sewing Machine.

On October 16, 1859, John Brown, a freesoiler and an ardent white abolitionist of Kansas and Ohio, led his five sons, eight northern white men and a group of five Negroes on a raid of the federal arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Virginia (now located in West Virginia). Rifles were made and stored here. John Brown had decided to show these slaves how to revolt against their masters. Therefore, he equipped them with arms, ammunition and with steel-tipped pikes which he had brought with him from Kansas. After they had seized the arsenal, he urged them to start an insurrection. They captured many of the gentlemen slaveholders of this area, and then John Brown suggested that they use their pikes to "strike for freedom!" The Negroes of this area and those of the south in general did not respond to his encouragement. His band killed five people including the mayor of Harper's Ferry and a free Negro porter of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. On October 18, Colonel Robert E. Lee of the United States Army, who was a native Virginian, was placed in charge of the situation. James Ewell Brown Stuart (later, commonly known as "J. E. B." Stuart) was appointed aide-de-camp to Lee. Stuart was assigned the task of presenting the summons to John Brown to surrender after one hundred United States Marines had surrounded the arsenal and had captured the raiders. Stuart successfully performed his task and was admired by many Americans for his staunch courage in this action because John Brown was such an unpredictable individual. Lee then sent John Brown to Charlestown, Virginia (now located in West Virginia) where he was tried by a Virginia Circuit Court for treason and for murder because of the capture of guns and supplies belonging to the government, was found guilty and was hanged on December 2, 1859. Ten of his followers were also killed. This incident caused hostile feelings between the sections to increase and made the Virginians very angry upon finding out the extent to which some individuals would conspire to incite Negro hatred for their masters.