Mahone subsequently succeeded in getting himself elected to the United States Senate in 1879. He became so politically influential that he eventually secured the nomination and the election of a "Readjuster" Governor for Virginia in 1881 and a Republican Lieutenant-Governor. At this time, he publicly declared himself a Republican. His "Readjuster" friends gained control of the General Assembly and removed several state government officials solely for political reasons. Mahone was considered responsible for the use of the "Spoils" System throughout the State of Virginia. During the administration of a Readjuster Governor, the debt of Virginia, as could be expected, was re-adjusted to approximately $23,000,000. Since many of the Readjuster party members consisted of Negroes, the poll tax was repealed also. The public school system and even the court system became infiltrated with politics. Often the responsible positions in these fields were filled by employees of political ability or affiliation rather than by employees with qualifications pertinent to such positions. After much rioting and corruption, Mahone's political machine finally lost control of the state in 1883.
A permanent reminder of the "Readjuster" Party was formulated in 1880 with the creation of Dickenson County from Russell, Wise and Buchanan Counties. It was named for one of the leaders of the "Readjuster" Party, William J. Dickenson. This county has the distinction of being the youngest county in Virginia.
In 1892, the state debt problem was settled more satisfactorily when the balance of the debt was established at a figure lower than the original but higher than the "Readjuster" figure and the rate of interest was lowered. The creditors and the debtors cooperated in this situation, and the credit of Virginia was gradually re-established.
During the Reconstruction Period, a great majority of the Republican Party members in the South were Negroes. Lincoln, himself, had been a Republican. Since it was during his administration that the war started and that the Emancipation Proclamation had been issued, the word "Republican" in the South had for many individuals the connotation of a moral and social stigma. So permanent were the scars of events of the Republican Reconstruction era that until 1920, the former seceded states never cast an electoral vote for a Republican candidate in a national election. Thus, a vote solidly or unanimously for the Democratic Party resulted and the term "Solid South" came into existence.
In the Spanish-American War of 1898, many Virginians fought valiantly for their country. The outstanding contributions of such Virginians as Dr. Walter Reed (birthplace, Gloucester County) and his colleague, Dr. Robert Powel Page Cooke, in discovering that yellow fever was transmitted to human beings by the bite of mosquitoes, Major-General Fitzhugh Lee (nephew of General Robert E. Lee) who served as United States Consul-General to Cuba in 1896 and who was given the command of the Seventh Army Corps in the Spanish-American War and Robley Dunglison Evans (Floyd) who was Commander of the U.S.S. Iowa at the Battle of Santiago Harbor helped considerably in the efforts of the United States to win this war.
By 1900, although Virginia's population (both white and Negro) had increased at a rapid rate, Virginia ranked seventeenth in population in comparison to the other forty-four states in the Union. Virginia had approximately 1,854,000 people including approximately 661,000 Negroes. However, one-third of the area of the state—which had become West Virginia—was permanently separated. In addition, Kentucky had been carved from within the original boundaries of Virginia with the consent of the state government.
Twentieth Century Developments
On June 12, 1901, a state constitutional convention was held in Richmond at the request of Carter Glass, an outstanding Virginia statesman from Lynchburg. The major issue of this convention was the discovery of a method of reducing the large number of illiterate Negro votes which in the 1900 election had outnumbered the white votes in one-third of the counties of the state. Since there was a large number of illiterate whites in the western mountain regions of Virginia, careful consideration had to be given to any proposed restrictions on suffrage so that these inhabitants whose ancestors had fought bravely in the Revolutionary War and in the War between the States would not be severely penalized. Consequently, the Constitution of 1902 included the requirement that a poll tax of one dollar and fifty cents had to be paid as a qualification for voting. Furthermore, a constitutional requirement demanded payment of three years' poll taxes six months before general elections. Since the Negroes were financially very poor at this time, this requirement indirectly caused a great decrease in the total number of Negro votes cast.
This constitution also included an "understanding clause" provision which required voters to prove in written statements their understanding of the government of Virginia. This provision was to be replaced in 1904 by the requirement of each potential voter passing an intelligence test proving that he could properly interpret the constitution. Such provisions prevented many uneducated Negroes from participating in elections.
A State Corporation Commission was created for the first time in the Commonwealth to control corporations such as the public transportation companies and the telephone and telegraph companies. Other governmental changes provided for in this constitution were: the direct election of the Secretary of the Commonwealth, the State Treasurer, the Commissioner of Agriculture and Immigration and the Superintendent of Public Instruction by the qualified voters; the replacement of County Courts by Circuit Courts; the constitutional requirement for the political status of a city: an incorporated community with a minimum population of 5,000 inhabitants is eligible to become an independent city, and, as the name implies, such cities are not subject to county administration; the establishment of racial segregation in the public schools of Virginia; a considerable extension of the powers of the State Board of Education, and a change in the age range used to determine school population as a basis for distributing the common school fund from 5-21 years to 7-20 years.
On May 29, 1902, the Constitution of 1902 was "proclaimed" by the convention members, whose delegates voted for its adoption. Although this Constitution was never ratified by the voters themselves, it was later approved by the state legislature. With certain revisions which were added later, this Constitution of 1902 is the present Constitution of the Commonwealth.
In spite of the political influence which had been prevalent in the public school system of Virginia in the 1880's, by the early 1900's numerous educational improvements had resulted: the local general public began to favor a public school system; professional teacher training methods were developed; a Virginia State Education Association was formed; simultaneous examinations for teacher certification throughout the state were standardized; state summer normal schools were organized; teacher scholarships were created, and education conferences were held.
The oft-called "renaissance" in Virginia education occurred in 1905. A New York educator had encouraged various educational conferences to be held in the South in an attempt to improve education in the South which had lagged far behind the rest of the nation. The Virginia Cooperative Education Commission and the leaders of the May Campaign of 1905 (so-called because the intensive campaigning took place in the month of May) demanded improved schools, better school regulations, an increase in the number of secondary schools and institutions of higher learning and a revised curriculum. The State Superintendent of Public Instruction at this time was Dr. Joseph Dupuy Eggleston whose leadership contributed greatly to the success of a movement to modernize and improve the educational standards of the State of Virginia. Vocational training (examples, agricultural, educational, manual training and domestic economy classes) which had long been discussed by certain educators became a reality, specific legislative appropriations for public high schools were made, public school libraries were established, health checkups for abnormalities were instituted in the school program and the number of teacher-training schools was increased.
Such educational progress was observed that, after five years of the new education planning and of the execution of such plans, a spokesman for the Carnegie Foundation remarked that "Probably no educational development in any State of the Union is more remarkable than that which is represented in the Old Commonwealth of Virginia." Practical education as well as theoretical education was offered with opportunities also available to study improved farming methods.
In 1906, Virginia filed suit against West Virginia in the United States Supreme Court concerning a judicial determination of the amount of money which Virginia should rightfully receive from West Virginia as partial assumption of the state debt accumulated while West Virginia was still a part of Virginia. Eight additional separate actions were filed against West Virginia by Virginia which finally resulted in an investigation of the financial status of each area, the debts incurred and the suggestion of a conference between the two states. West Virginia originally evaded such a conference but, later, appointed a commission to represent the state. More deliberation and delay occurred until 1915 when the indebtedness of the State of West Virginia to the State of Virginia was declared by the United States Supreme Court as $12,393,292.50. Finally, after continuous postponement and more court judgments, in 1919 a special session of the West Virginia state legislature passed a law which provided for the payment of the sum due Virginia. Over a million dollars was paid during 1919, and, by issuing twenty-year bonds, the balance of the debt with interest was paid by 1939.
In 1908, the first municipality in the United States to adopt the City Manager form of government was Staunton. After this form of government had been successfully employed, many additional cities in Virginia and in the other states proceeded to adopt the City Manager Plan of local government.
On March 4, 1913, Thomas Woodrow Wilson, a native of Staunton, was inaugurated as the twenty-eighth President of the United States. He was the eighth Virginia-born individual to attain this high office, although he had left the state for a college teaching position and later a gubernatorial post. From his experiences as a professor of history and as the governor of New Jersey, he had formulated a personal brand of political philosophy which he entitled "The New Freedom." He believed that government leaders should act through the people as well as for the people. During his first administration, he signed the famous Federal Reserve Bank Act, authored by U. S. Senator Robert Owen, a native Virginian, and Carter Glass, a U. S. Representative at that time from Lynchburg. Although he was re-elected President in 1916 as a peace candidate, Wilson soon had to wage an intensive war against Germany as conditions warranted such action. He stated his idealism in his famous words "to make the World safe for Democracy" and "a War to end all Wars." His famous "Fourteen Points" Speech before Congress concerning the war aims of the Allied Powers was constantly referred to during the Armistice negotiations and is still quoted in international conferences. His personal visit to the peace conference at Versailles Palace near Paris, France—the first personal visit of a President of the United States to such a conference—was history-making in itself. He will always be remembered for his idea of "A League of Nations," the forerunner of the United Nations, a project for international peace which is believed to have caused or, at least, to have hastened his death due to his strenuous speaking tour on behalf of the League.
In 1914, the General Assembly voted for a state-wide law providing for the prohibition of liquor. This law went into effect on November 1, 1916. At the federal level, the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States which prohibited the "manufacture, sale or transportation of intoxicating liquors" throughout the United States and its territories was submitted to the states by Congress on December 18, 1917. Virginia was the second state to ratify it.
During World War I, the state contributed 91,623 men to the armed forces, many of whom participated in the Somme, St. Mihiel and Meuse-Argonne Forest campaigns. Most of the Virginia troops fought with the 80th Infantry Division of the American Expeditionary Forces. This division was called the Blue Ridge Division because the Blue Ridge Mountains are located in the home states of the men from Virginia, West Virginia and Pennsylvania who made up this division. Noted for their bravery, this division was the only division to enter the front lines three times during the offensive and the only one to advance a maximum distance of twenty-two miles against the enemy between the first offensive and the Armistice. Many members of the 29th Infantry Division were Virginians who served in France, particularly during the Meuse-Argonne Forest campaigns. Thirty-six Virginians received the Distinguished Service Medal of the United States Army, the French Legion of Honor or the Croix de Guerre.
On the home-front, World War I caused a tremendous increase in business and, in some instances, prompted the construction of war camps in various parts of the state. Camp Lee, near Petersburg, was used as an infantry training base for 50,000 soldiers; Camp Stuart at Newport News was used chiefly as an embarkation point and Camp Humphreys, near Alexandria, was used as a training center for engineers. Langley Field, near Hampton, was used as training grounds for pilots; the Hampton Roads area was utilized for construction of numerous United States ships and as naval and military bases.
The present city of Hopewell actually owes its city status and growth to World War I and the construction of a huge munitions plant on Hopewell Farm by the E. I. DuPont de Nemours Company. As a matter of fact, the manufacture of fertilizer from nitrogen in the air still accounts for the great industrial activity at Hopewell at the present time. During World War I also, the famous Tredegar Iron Works in Richmond manufactured projectiles, explosives, shrapnel shells and other war materials of necessity.
Among prominent Virginians who played a major role during World War I was Admiral David Watson Taylor. Admiral Taylor was chief of the Naval Bureau of Construction and Repair (1914-1922) at Washington. He had responsibility for the design and construction of naval aircraft and he developed a type of flying boat during World War I. His contributions were later acknowledged by the establishment of the David Taylor Model Basin, a naval activity at Carteret, Maryland, near the Virginia border.
Health, too, was a critical problem on the home front during the war. For example, a dreadful influenza epidemic occurred followed by a severe fuel shortage due to a railroad strike. This condition caused many "flu" patients to develop pneumonia and to die. In Richmond alone, approximately eight hundred people succumbed during this epidemic period.
As a reminder of the sacrifices of Virginians during World War I, at William Byrd Park in Richmond, is a 240-foot tower constructed of pink brick. It is called the Carillon Tower and was erected in 1932 as a memorial to the war dead.
In 1918, women received special recognition in the state. For the first time, women were admitted to the College of William and Mary and to the graduate and professional schools of the state university, the University of Virginia. It is interesting to note that, in contrast to the educational status accorded women, the state refused to ratify the proposed Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Contrary to this negative attitude expressed in Virginia toward giving women the right to vote, the Constitutional Amendment was officially ratified and adopted nationwide in 1920. One of the first effects of this amendment in Virginia was a legislative enactment requiring all women to pay the poll tax.
Virginia continued to play a key role in international events during this period. For example, in 1926, Navy Lieutenant-Commander Richard Evelyn Byrd, a native of Winchester, made the first polar flight by flying over the North Pole and back in fifteen and a half hours. He then flew over the Atlantic Ocean the following year with Bert Balcher, Bert Acosta and George Noville. In 1929, he made the first return flight over the South Pole. Rear Admiral Byrd led four expeditions to the Antarctic and, just prior to his death in 1957, he was the leader of another expedition to Antarctica called "Operation Deepfreeze" at which time he was consulted concerning many ideas of importance to the safety and progress of the expedition. During World War II, he did secret work for the United States Government and furnished much valuable information concerning terrain of the land which he had mapped on his third Antarctic expedition. He wrote "Skyward," "Little America," "Discovery," "Exploring with Byrd" and "Alone" describing his various explorations. Richard Evelyn Byrd will always be remembered as one of the greatest explorers in United States history. An eight-foot high bronze statue of the late Admiral Richard E. Byrd was recently erected on the Virginia side of the Potomac River between the Arlington Cemetery and the Memorial Bridge. The statue depicts him in his middle thirties when he was at the height of his exploration career. He is clad in a fur outfit and is mounted on a four foot pedestal with fitting carved maps of the Arctic and Antarctic regions and an eagle as a background symbolizing his achievements.
In 1926, the famous project now known as the Restoration of Williamsburg began. The original purpose of the restoration was to benefit the people of the present in "That the Future May Learn from the Past." Dr. W. A. R. Goodwin, the late Rector of Bruton Parish Church in Williamsburg, was responsible for interesting John D. Rockefeller, Jr. in such a project. To date, not only have 350 buildings been reconstructed, 82 buildings been restored and 619 buildings been torn down, but also many of the early crafts such as wigmaking, millinery-making, silversmithing, printing, shoe-making and repairing, cabinetmaking, blacksmithing and glassmaking have been revived. These craft shops are open to the public. A visit to the Wren Building at the College of William and Mary, the Bruton Parish Church (Episcopal), the Public Gaol, the Magazine, the Raleigh Tavern, the Capitol or the Governor's Palace provides an appreciation of life as it existed in the colonial period.
During the early 1920's there was much discussion within the state concerning the need for government reorganization at the state level. During the governorship of Harry F. Byrd (1926-1930), considerable effort was made to reorganize the state government with the objective of increasing its efficiency. The Reorganization Act of 1927 provided that only the executive offices of Governor, Lieutenant-Governor and Attorney-General were to be elected by popular vote; that the state legislature was to have the authority to elect the auditor and that the Governor was to appoint other executive officials with confirmation by the General Assembly. The structure and functions of the various state departments were also changed by this act to make each department more effective. Twelve administrative departments were created, and, in most instances, department heads were made appointive positions rather than elective ones. The twelve departments created were: Finance, Taxation, Agriculture and Immigration, Workmen's Compensation, Corporations, Highways, Conservation and Development, Health, Public Welfare, Education, Law, and Labor and Industry.
During this same period, the "Pay-as-You-Go" system for roadbuilding was adopted. This system means that, instead of floating large bond issues to raise revenue for roadbuilding, the state pays for the roads as they are built, with some of the revenue obtained from gasoline taxes and fees from motor vehicle licenses. During the first few years of the system while adequate funds were being accumulated, the state did not have the total mileage of modern roads which would have been built more rapidly through borrowing; however, as the funds increased, the state was able to develop an excellent system of state and local highways. The "Pay-as-You-Go" system has reflected favorably on the state's financial reputation.
Virginia made national headlines in the Presidential election of 1928. For the first time since 1872, the Republican set of electors in Virginia was chosen by a majority of the Virginia voters. Consequently, the Republican Presidential candidate that year, Herbert Hoover, received the twelve electoral votes of Virginia.
Virginia was fortunate in escaping the most severe pangs of the depression years of the 1930's. The great variety of industries and occupations kept the Commonwealth from becoming severely economically stricken as was the case of states having one specialized type of economic activity. Surprisingly enough, some industries such as the tobacco industry and the rayon and cellophane industries expanded considerably. In conjunction with the federal government's construction program during the depression years as an attempt to create new job opportunities, numerous bridges, public school buildings and other structures—such as the Museum of Fine Arts in Richmond—were built. Economy in government administration was stressed and Governor John G. Pollard (1930-1934) reduced his own salary ten per cent for one year as a part of the economy program. Virginia was one of the three states which was successful in maintaining a balanced budget in the depression years of the 1930's. Although the relief cost in Virginia was below the national average relief, at one point during the depression, over 50,000 families and single individuals had become dependent upon the dole system—especially industrial workers in the cities. Job-finding committees were organized in many sections of the state to stimulate re-employment.
After the national census of 1930 had been taken and the results had been tabulated, the state legislature of Virginia passed an act dividing the Commonwealth into nine Congressional districts instead of its previous ten districts. This decrease took place because of a smaller increase in population in Virginia in proportion to other states of the United States. This act was found to be objectionable by some residents who stated that the new seventh district was disproportionately large. After suit had been filed, the Virginia Court of Appeals declared the act invalid on the grounds that it did not provide for equal representation as required by the United States Constitution. As a result, in the 1932 national election, all the United States Representatives from Virginia were elected at-large by the whole state electorate rather than by particular districts. Subsequently, the legislature redistricted properly, and at the next election Congressmen from Virginia were chosen by, and represented, particular Congressional districts. Like a large majority of the states in the 1932 national election, Virginians gave Franklin D. Roosevelt a victory at the polls with a plurality of 114,343 popular votes.
During Governor Pollard's administration, the General Assembly passed the Optional Forms Act. Under this act, two types of county government were made available for selection according to local preference: the county-manager form, usually preferred by urban and large rural county areas and the county-executive form, generally preferred by small rural areas. As a result of this act, several county administrative offices were merged for more efficient and economical management.
In August 1933, a special session of the Virginia legislature was held to select delegates for a special convention to vote on the repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Although Governor Pollard at first refused to summon the extra session, he was forced by petition of two-thirds of both houses of the General Assembly to do so. Subsequently, the delegates favored the repeal of the amendment by a vote of 96 to 54. The vote by the people was actually a referendum vote, but ballots for repeal automatically elected a slate of thirty delegates-at-large who were pledged to a repeal vote. Later, at a special convention, the delegates voted to repeal the Eighteenth Amendment by favoring the Twenty-First Amendment. The General Assembly then created its own regulations for the sale of liquor and provided for the establishment of Alcoholic Beverage Control Boards throughout the Commonwealth.
When President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed Claude A. Swanson of Virginia as the first Secretary of the Navy in his cabinet, ex-Governor Harry F. Byrd was appointed to succeed Swanson as United States Senator. Harry F. Byrd was elected United States Senator at the next national election. Thus, in 1933, Senator Byrd began one of the longest periods of continuous service in the United States Senate.
In 1935, the first national park in Virginia and the second national park east of the Mississippi River was established. It was called the Shenandoah National Park and was dedicated by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. This very scenic park, which now includes the famous Skyline Drive, was made possible by the combined efforts of many people: Governor E. Lee Trinkle who publicly advocated the establishment of parks, numerous citizens who willingly donated property (because Virginia had been informed by the federal government that it would have to furnish the land), the state which also contributed land after it had purchased it or condemned it and the federal government which helped financially with appropriations and with physical labor furnished by the Civilian Conservation Corps. This park has attracted tourists from throughout the nation with its breath-taking mountain scenery and diversity of trees and wild flowers.
Virginia made a very significant contribution to World War II. When the nation began to mobilize for war, Governor James H. Price created the Virginia Defense Council. Dr. Douglas Southall Freeman, a noted author, was appointed chairman of this council, the first in the United States. As in previous wars, the Hampton Roads area became strategically important; navy activities increased rapidly in this area; various camps including Camp Lee and Langley Field were re-opened; and production, transportation and consumption activities created new records in quantity and speed. Activities at Camp A. P. Hill, Camp Pickett, Newport News, Norfolk, Alexandria, Williamsburg, Quantico and Hampton Roads reflected much of the war effort of Virginians in this conflict. The Tredegar Iron Works in Richmond was consigned again to make munitions for the armed conflict. Richmond along with Madison, Wisconsin, was selected as a test city for a scrap aluminum drive. The test proved most successful, and the scrap aluminum drives were soon extended throughout the nation. Various federal government offices were temporarily moved to Virginia, such as the United States Patent Office which was moved from Washington to Richmond. Since Richmond is located within a one hundred mile radius of the national capital and is geographically and strategically situated from a military viewpoint, it was designated as a "critical area." During the 1940-1945 period, Virginia furnished 137,000 men and 3,757 women to the Army (including the Air Force) and 71,091 men and 2,055 women to the Navy (including the Marines). Civilians in Virginia, as in all other states, contributed much physical, mental and financial effort during the war in their desire to bring peace again to the world.
VIRGINIA STATE CHAMBER OF COMMERCE
Shrine of Memory: Virginia War Memorial
One impact of World War II upon state government was action during Governor Colgate W. Darden's term to modify the poll tax requirement as applied to Virginia members of the armed forces on active duty. A special session of the Virginia legislature in 1944 attempted to exempt those persons from poll tax requirements but the judiciary nullified this measure as contrary to constitutional provision. Subsequently, by referendum, the voters of the state favored the calling of a limited constitutional convention to accomplish the objective. A condition of the referendum restricted the delegates to this convention to act solely upon the soldier vote and to agree not to consider, adopt or propose any other law, amendment or revision. The constitutional convention approved a measure which became the seventeenth article of the Virginia State Constitution: this new article allowed service men and women on active duty, otherwise eligible to vote, to vote without payment of a poll tax or without fulfillment of the registration requirement.
Since the end of World War II, war memorials have been erected in various communities as an expression of appreciation for war sacrifices. The most famous such memorial constructed through state or local action has been the state memorial erected in Richmond. A million dollar white marble edifice known as the "Shrine of Memory" consists of a structure twenty-two feet high and includes the names, etched on glass panels and marble columns, of approximately 10,340 Virginians who died in combat in World War II or in the Korean conflict. The memorial, located on a four-acre site overlooking the James River near the north end of the Robert E. Lee Bridge, is also a tribute to the 360,000 Virginians who participated in the armed forces during these two conflicts and to the 100,000 Virginia volunteer civilian workers who contributed much in their various types of activities. At the base of the statue to "Memory" is a gas-fed torch, called the "Torch of Liberty," which burns perpetually. Embedded in the floor of the "Shrine of Memory" are memorial coffers which contain authentic, labeled ground and sea battle mementos from battleground areas. The leading sculptor for this unusually beautiful memorial was Leo Friedlander.
The sites of two battles which took place during the War between the States within the geographical area of Virginia have been accorded official national recognition within the past few years. Specifically, the Appomattox Court House National Historical Monument was granted National Historical Park status in 1954. This area of approximately 968 acres includes a reproduction of the Wilmer McLean House in which the Confederate General, Robert E. Lee, surrendered the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia to the Union General, Ulysses S. Grant. The grounds where the two armies opposed each other for the last time are also included in this park. In the same year, the Manassas Battlefield of approximately 1,719 acres was given the status of a National Battlefield Park. This area was the site of the famous Battles of Bull Run or Manassas.
During the 1950 session of the General Assembly, a bill was passed which provided for a state tax reduction of approximately one million dollars whenever the tax revenue exceeded the estimates by certain amounts, the amount depending upon the state budget. This law was later revised to the effect that if the general fund revenue received from income taxes exceeded the estimates by five percent, a tax reduction would automatically result. Since passage of the act, Virginia taxpayers have benefitted considerably through its provisions. On the other hand, several attempts have been made to repeal the general poll tax. The United States Supreme Court has upheld the legality of the poll tax by refusing to review a suit against some local officials who had barred individuals from voting because of non-payment of the poll tax.
At the Democratic National Nominating Convention held in Chicago in 1952, the Virginia delegates under the leadership of Governor John S. Battle refused to accept the "loyalty" pledge adopted by voice vote in the convention. This "loyalty" pledge or "majority rule" pledge required that each delegate agree to "exert every honorable means" to have the names of the Democratic Party's Presidential and Vice-Presidential nominees included on the Democratic ballot of each state. President Harry S. Truman had encouraged federal measures dealing with fair employment practices, the passage of federal non-segregation laws and the enforcement of a strong federal civil rights program. Some of the delegates who knew that many of the Southern states did not approve of the Democratic legislative program believed that the states of Virginia, South Carolina and Louisiana would refuse to accept the "loyalty" pledge because of this program. Consequently, when delegates from these states refused to accept the pledge, they were not initially seated at the convention. Southern delegates, however, protested that state party rules or state laws prohibited them making such a commitment. Governor Battle, the leader of the 28 member delegation from Virginia, stated that a state law assured the inclusion of the names of the Democratic Party nominees on the Virginia Democratic ballot and that they rejected the pledge only as a matter of principle. Ultimately, Virginia delegates as well as those of South Carolina and Louisiana were given seats and full voting rights at the convention.
The Republican nominee for the Presidency in 1952, 1956 and 1960 carried the state, contrary to previous usual voting results in the state. In the 1952 election the Republican candidate, Dwight D. Eisenhower, received 349,037 popular votes from Virginia and the Democratic candidate, Adlai Stevenson, received 268,677 popular votes. Thus, the Republican Party won the twelve electoral votes of the state. In 1956, 386,320 popular votes from Virginia were cast for the Republican electors and 264,110 popular votes for the Democratic electors who represented the same Presidential candidates as in 1952. In the 1960 election the Republican nominee, Richard M. Nixon, won the popular vote of the state over the Democratic nominee, John F. Kennedy. Virginia again cast her twelve electoral votes for the Republican candidate. However, during this period, the Governor, the two United States Senators from Virginia, eight of the ten Virginia members of the United States House of Representatives and a majority of the General Assembly continued to be members of the Democratic Party, illustrating the traditional role of the Democratic Party in the state since the Reconstruction Era.
Public education has received much attention in Virginia, especially since 1950. On several occasions, for example, the General Assembly has approved million dollar appropriations of state funds for school construction projects. The tremendous influx of youth in the public schools during the decade of the 1950's accentuated the need for more teachers as well as classrooms throughout the state. Hence, rising costs of education have become a key matter at each recent session of the General Assembly. During the last few years, however, the question of integration of white and of Negro students in the public schools of the state has been a paramount education issue.
When the United States Supreme Court on May 17, 1954 handed down its decision which in effect outlawed racial segregation in the public schools of the nation, Virginia faced a very serious problem because the State Constitution has required separate public schools for white and for Negro children in the Commonwealth. Governor Thomas B. Stanley soon appointed a commission of thirty-two state legislators, under the chairmanship of State Senator Garland Gray, to advise him concerning a course of action to be taken by the Commonwealth. The commission conducted a study and subsequently transmitted to the Governor its report, known as the Gray Plan. The plan recommended consideration of an amendment to the constitutional provision requiring separate schools and suggested that local communities be enabled through their school boards to assign students to schools for a variety of reasons other than race. Subsequently, a special session of the General Assembly authorized a referendum election on the calling of a constitutional convention. The referendum question was worded as follows: "Should a Constitutional Convention be called with authority to revise Section 141 of the State Constitution so as to permit the General Assembly to appropriate public funds to further the education of Virginia students in non-sectarian private schools as well as in public schools?" A majority of the voters voted in the affirmative at the referendum election held in January 1956. In March 1956 a Constitutional Convention was held in Richmond and these delegates rewrote Section 141; hence it became permissible under the Constitution of the Commonwealth to use public funds for tuition grants for pupils in private non-sectarian schools. Later, at a special session of the General Assembly in September 1956, a pupil placement program was adopted under which the Governor appointed a pupil placement board whose chief function was to handle all student assignments in the state; under the program, parents of all children entering the public schools were required to fill out assignment applications which, in turn, were ultimately processed through the board.
In 1958, legislation provided for the automatic closing of any school which might be policed by the federal government and permitted the Governor to close any school in a locality in which another school was already being so policed. The admission of any Negro student to a public school for white students required the Governor to close the school and assume full control. Subsequently, federal court orders directed school boards in Arlington, Charlottesville and Norfolk to admit students without regard to race, effective September 1958; following state law, the pupil placement board denied admission to Negro applicants in the localities mentioned previously; the local school boards in these areas and in Warren County initiated action to admit Negro students, pursuant to federal court order. However, the Governor announced the closing of the high school in Warren County, and similar action was taken in Charlottesville and in Norfolk. During the Fall semester of 1958, a total of nine schools (one in Warren County and eight in Norfolk and Charlottesville) were closed to 13,000 students, many of whom transferred elsewhere. When court decisions in January 1959 voided the school closing law, the law cutting off state funds and the law providing tuition grants of public funds for segregated private schooling, the Governor stated that he could take no further action to prevent the opening of public schools on an integrated basis. Some public schools in Arlington, Charlottesville and Norfolk, as well as in Alexandria, began integrated classes in the Spring semester of 1959. Since that time, the number of integrated schools has increased. The implications of the United States Supreme Court decision of May 17, 1954 upon the public school system of Virginia have presented to the Commonwealth one of its most difficult problems of the Twentieth Century.
As the population of Virginia cities and towns has grown during the past two decades, persons have moved to the suburbs and surrounding territory—sometimes at a faster rate than the increase in new population in the urban centers. The 1960 census confirmed such declines from the previous growth of cities in nearly all parts of the nation. Attractions to persons who move from the urban centers include larger amounts of available land, newer homes, shopping centers with comparatively easy parking, and initial lower real estate taxes. After these persons have lived in the suburbs or surrounding territory for a while, various needs such as adequate streets, police protection, schools, sewerage facilities, water and building and zoning codes sometimes develop or become more apparent. Often county governments are not equipped to provide for all of these services; if county governments do establish such services, the initial costs may be very high for the taxpayers.
To counterbalance the move to suburbs and nearby rural areas, urban local units of government seek to annex surrounding land from counties or nearby cities. In Virginia, annexation is determined by a panel of three judges, only one of whom is a resident of the county involved. No referendum is held to ascertain the wishes of the residents of the area under consideration because of the belief that annexation should be based on the need of the majority of the people concerned. While annexation may be an answer to the urban government's need for extending its tax base, county units lose their prime tax property. Over a period of time, the continued growth of the metropolitan area causes persons to locate outside of the revised boundaries and the process of annexation starts over again.
In addition to annexation, another method available whereby an urban unit may extend its boundaries is consolidation of local units. An example is the merger of a city government unit and a county government unit into a revised city government unit. In Virginia, consolidation statutes are relatively flexible: officials of both units negotiate between themselves to reach an agreement on the authority of the new local unit of government, in contrast to annexation where the county government is often forced against its will to give up valuable real estate.
The growth of metropolitan areas has raised a serious challenge to the ability of local units of government to provide adequate government services to their residents at reasonable costs. Unless further understanding is developed among the citizenry involved, the impact of metropolitanism will continue to result in serious inequities among individual local units of government.
SUMMARY
By April 1861, the Commonwealth of Virginia had furnished one-third of all the Presidents of the United States, had had numerous other Virginian leaders in high federal positions, had been responsible for the calling of a "Peace Conference" in the nation's capital and had been most reluctant to vote for secession from the Union. However, the inhabitants of Virginia believed in the doctrine of "States' Rights," in non-interference of slavery by the federal government and in not coercing neighboring seceded states back into the Union via invasion. Consequently, Virginia joined the Confederacy, and Richmond soon became the Confederate capital and the State of Virginia a huge battlefield.
The brilliant military tactics of General Robert E. Lee, Thomas Jonathan Jackson and "J.E.B." Stuart will always be worthy of military study. Virginia helped the Confederacy, economically as well as militarily, especially with the food products of the Saltville area and of the Shenandoah Valley and the manufactured arms equipment of the Tredegar Iron Works in Richmond. When West Virginia became an independent state without the consent of Virginia, it reduced the area and population of the Commonwealth considerably. The ending of the War between the States, like that of the American Revolutionary War, took place in Virginia. The magnificent courage and fervor of the Virginians as members of the Confederacy will always be cherished by posterity. When one is well-informed of the deeds, hardships and activities which occurred during the War between the States in Virginia and in other southern states, one can easily understand the ever-present pride which the Confederate Flag does, and always will, inspire. This era of American history, although one of the darkest periods in our national history when even brother sometimes fought brother on the battlefield, will forever remain one of the most dynamic and heroic periods in human civilization.
After enduring a harsh Reconstruction Program enforced by a radical United States Congress and by "Carpetbagger" and "Scalawag" governments, Virginia officially returned to the Union on January 26, 1870. Then the Commonwealth began settling some of its local problems: the extremely high state debt, the educational program, the joint boundary line between Virginia and West Virginia and the "Readjuster" Movement. The newest county in Virginia—Dickenson County—was created in 1880. By 1900, Virginia ranked seventeenth in United States state population and seemed prepared to meet the challenging events of the Twentieth Century with renewed confidence.
A new state constitution, still in effect today, was "proclaimed" in 1902. It provided for a poll tax and an "understanding clause" provision as a voting requirement; later, the latter was changed to an intelligence test requirement. The unusual political status of a city, completely independent of county jurisdiction, was originated at this time also. Racial segregation in the public schools of Virginia was provided for in the Constitution of 1902.
Other events and activities concerning Virginia and Virginians during the Twentieth Century include the payment to Virginia by West Virginia of the state debt which West Virginia had accumulated while she was part of Virginia, the operation of the first City-Manager form of local government at Staunton, outstanding participation in two World Wars and in the Korean conflict, the "Restoration of Williamsburg" Project, a reorganization of state governmental departments, the comparatively small economic dislocation during the "Great Depression," the establishment of the Shenandoah National Park, the opportunity afforded service men and women on active duty to vote without payment of a poll tax, the constant increase in the growth of industry, the victory for the Virginia delegates at the 1952 Democratic National Nominating Convention, Republican Presidential victories in Virginia in 1928, 1952, 1956 and 1960, developments in education including the problems of school integration and the expansion of school facilities and the continuing growth of metropolitanism.
As our nation's history unfolds, issues of state, national and international scope will continue to face the Commonwealth. The history of Virginia has furnished Virginians with a proud heritage, an appreciation for the noble deeds of the past and an understanding of the courage and wisdom required to solve successfully current and future problems. Virginia—a vital area of the United States—will undoubtedly play a major role in the fulfillment of the destiny of the United States.
5
Economic Life
The Work Force
A variety of geographical resources and of human resources results in diversity in the economic life of the state. The proportion of the population engaged in gainful occupation at the present time is significant. Approximately 38% of the total population in Virginia is included in the work force. The group outside the work force includes individuals who are thirteen years of age or younger, homemakers, students age fourteen and over, the physically and mentally handicapped who are unable to work, and persons who are retired.
Census enumerations since 1890 indicate that total employment in Virginia has expanded continuously. During the seventy year period 1890-1960, the work force increased from approximately 552,000 to approximately 1,473,000. This represents an increase of 176%, or an average annual increase of 13,137 workers.
Three phases in the trend of employment are observable: from 1890 to 1910, 1910 to 1940 and 1940 to 1960. The first phase coincides with the Industrial Revolution in the United States; the increase in employment in Virginia during this time was 44%. In the second phase, from 1910 to 1940, the rate of increase slackened although the total number in the work force grew; the increase amounted to 14% during this period. The third phase of employment began in 1940 as needs of World War II became clear; unprecedented peacetime demands started in 1945 and have continued to the decade of the 1960's; in this phase, for the first time, Virginia outpaced the United States as a whole in growth of employment, with an increase of 63%.
Types of Employment
Government Employment—Government employees make up the largest number of workers in any particular type of occupation in the state. The term "government employees" includes all civilians working directly for federal, state and local governments plus military personnel stationed in Virginia. Nearly one-fourth of the total Virginia employment is found in this group. Government employment is the greatest single source of personal income in the state.
Approximately 65% of the government employment in Virginia, as defined above, is engaged in activities of the federal government. The number of military personnel in the state is slightly more than twice the number of federal civilian employees. Although federal employment is scattered throughout the state—every community has postal employees, for example—there is a concentration of federal employees in two areas of the state, namely, Northern Virginia (Arlington and Fairfax Counties and the cities of Alexandria and Falls Church) and the Hampton Roads area. Within the federal civilian group, approximately 70% are employed by the Department of Defense. Following the Department of Defense, the next largest numbers of federal civilian employees work for the Post Office Department and for the Veterans Administration. In addition to the federal employees working in the state, a substantial number of persons who live in Northern Virginia commute daily to the District of Columbia and nearby Maryland for federal employment.
Approximately 35% of the government employees in Virginia work for the state (11%) and for local (24%) governments. Since more than half of the government employment in the United States is found in state and local governments, the number of such employees in Virginia is relatively smaller. The state and local group in Virginia is nearly equally divided between school and non-school personnel. Although the number of state and local employees in Virginia has grown during the past decade, the percentage of increase has not been as great as that for the United States as a whole.
Employment in Manufacturing—Excluding military personnel from the total government group, employees engaged in manufacturing rank first in number. However, when civilian government and military personnel are combined, government employment surpasses manufacturing employment. Approximately 20% of the total work force is engaged in manufacturing. During the decade of the 1940's manufacturing in Virginia surpassed agriculture for the first time, and the growth of manufacturing continued progressively through the decade of the 1950's. Manufacturing as a whole is diversified.
Expenditure for new manufacturing plant and equipment exceeded one billion dollars in one recent seven-year period. Additional millions of dollars have been spent recently for expanding existing facilities. Fabricated metals (example, swimming-pool type atomic reactors) and machinery and electrical equipment (examples, motors, calculators) groups of industries have grown substantially within the past few years. The four manufacturing industries having the largest number of employees are textile, chemical and chemical products, food and kindred products, and lumber and wood products. The employees in these four industries constitute nearly 50% of all workers engaged in manufacturing.
Textile employment leads all other manufacturing employment. The textile industry in Virginia includes the spinning and processing of yarn and the weaving and finishing of material. Cotton and rayon broad-woven fabrics are the major ones. Approximately 60% of Virginia's textile employment is found in this category. The cities of Danville, Fieldale and Roanoke are especially noted for their textiles. Knitting mills constitute the second type of textile activity, and approximately two-thirds of employment in the knitting mills is engaged in making full-fashioned and seamless hosiery. Lynchburg is a key center of knitting mills for men's and ladies' hosiery.
The second largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing in Virginia is the chemical industry. Approximately two-thirds of such chemical employees are found in the synthetic fiber field. In 1917, the first large rayon plant was established. This industry has developed rapidly, and Virginia now plays an important part nationally in this production. Virginia now has approximately 30% of the total employees in the United States engaged in synthetic fibers. There are at present large synthetic fiber plants in Richmond, Martinsville, Roanoke, Waynesboro, Narrows and Front Royal. Virginia has been regarded as the geographical center of this industry in the United States. Another type of chemical production involves industrial inorganic chemicals including alkalies—soda ash, bicarbonate of soda, caustic soda—and chlorine (Saltville and Hopewell), sulfuric acid (Norfolk and Richmond) and ammonia (Hopewell). The manufacturing of fertilizer is also important in the state because of the agricultural need for it in the South and because Virginia is conveniently located with respect to the raw materials necessary for making fertilizer (namely, potash, nitrogen and phosphate rock). Hopewell and Norfolk are two cities which have large plants for the manufacture of fertilizers. Both Fredericksburg and Richmond have a large cellophane company and certain medicinal drugs such as streptomycin and thiamine hydrochloride are manufactured at Elkton. In addition, dyes, wood turpentine, dry ice and various insecticides are produced in Virginia.
The third largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing is the food and kindred products industry. This industry may be conveniently divided into two groups based upon the factors which determine their location:
1) those food industries whose products originate and are marketed in a population center—for example, bakery products (Richmond, Norfolk and Roanoke), beverages (Norfolk and Richmond), meat products (Richmond and Smithfield), dairy products (Richmond, Roanoke, Alexandria and Fredericksburg) and manufactured ice (Richmond and Alexandria);
2) those food industries which find it desirable to locate close to the source of supply—usually a perishable commodity—for example, seafood canneries (Norfolk, Hampton and Reedville), vegetable canneries (Walkerton and Urbanna), poultry dressing plants (Broadway, Harrisonburg and Winchester), fruit processing plants (Berryville, Mount Jackson, Winchester and Front Royal), confectionery plants (Suffolk and Norfolk), meatpacking companies (Suffolk and Smithfield) and frozen foods (seafood—Norfolk; poultry—Broadway; fruits and vegetables—Exmore).
The fourth largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing is the lumber and lumber products industry. In the latter part of the Nineteenth Century and the early Twentieth Century, this industry had the greatest number of employees in the manufacturing field. Gradually its importance declined until the 1930's when it increased rapidly as the demand for lumber production increased until, at present, it has reached fourth place. Approximately 77% of Virginia's total lumber industry employees is found in the sawmills and planing mills, especially in mills located in Franklin, Petersburg, Norfolk and Richmond. Whereas the synthetic fibers mentioned previously are manufactured primarily in seven large plants with numerous employees per plant, the lumber industry in Virginia consists of approximately 1700 establishments—only approximately 200 of which employ at least twenty employees. Veneer mills, excelsior mills, mill-work plants, plywood plants and companies which make fruit and vegetable baskets, boxes and crates also furnish diverse types of wood products for the Virginia lumber industry.
The fifth largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing is the apparel industry. Approximately one-half of all such employees are engaged in making men's and boys' clothing: suits, coats and overcoats are made in large quantities in Richmond, Staunton and Norfolk; shirts, pajamas and underwear at Danville, Radford, Lynchburg and Marion; trousers, overalls and sports jackets at Martinsville, Richmond and Staunton. Women's and misses' dresses are manufactured at Roanoke, maids' and nurses' uniforms and sports jackets at Lynchburg, lingerie at Staunton and Roanoke, gloves at Lynchburg, children's and infants' dresses and play clothes at Newport News and Shenandoah. Supplementary textile products include sheets and pillow cases (Danville), towels (Fieldale), hassocks, canvas awnings and automobile seat covers (Richmond).
The sixth largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing is the transportation equipment industry. Most of this employment is found in shipbuilding at the Hampton Roads area where aircraft carriers, atomic submarines, ocean liners—such as the "Constitution" and the "United States"—and numerous smaller vessels are constructed. Other employees of this industry work in numerous truck and bus body companies scattered throughout the state, in railroad equipment companies—for example, brake shoes (Roanoke); railroad bearings (Petersburg) and in a wagon company (Lynchburg).
Furniture-making ranks seventh in number of employees engaged in manufacturing. Most of Virginia's furniture workers are engaged in the manufacture of unupholstered wooden house furniture. Such furniture includes bedroom, living room and dining room suites (Bassett, Martinsville, Staunton, Marion, Stanleytown, Roanoke and Pulaski), cedar chests (Alta Vista) and radio and television cabinets (Bristol). Living room upholstered furniture including chairs, sofa beds, studio couches and furniture frames are manufactured at Salem, Christiansburg, Norfolk, Roanoke and Galax. Chrome dinettes and plastic furniture are manufactured in plants located at Marion. Office equipment including floor cabinets and metal filing cabinets is made at Crozet. There is also an extensive fixture industry—bank, office and store fixtures—plus such items as literary bookstacks, metal partitions, doors and movable partitions primarily at Orange, Norfolk and Richmond.
The eighth largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing is the tobacco industry. Although the national consumption of tobacco has increased considerably, the rapid mechanization added to the manufacturing process has resulted in a decline in the total number of employees. Although only approximately six workers per 1,000 engaged in manufacturing in the United States are in the tobacco industry, in Virginia approximately 56 workers per 1,000 are so engaged. The chief locations for the tobacco industry are Richmond, Petersburg, Danville and South Boston. These workers are engaged primarily in the manufacture of cigarettes and in tobacco stemming and redrying. Richmond is the largest cigarette manufacturing center in the world. Petersburg has an exceptionally large cigarette manufacturing plant. Cigars, chewing and smoking tobacco and snuff are also manufactured in Richmond. Danville has the largest number of tobacco stemming and redrying workers. Approximately half of the tobacco industry workers are women.
The ninth largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing is the paper and allied industries. The greatest number of such workers is engaged in the manufacturing of pulp. The largest pulp mills are located at Covington and Franklin. Approximately one-half of the nation's supply of wood pulp is furnished by the South and Virginia ranks fifth among the southern states in its production. The newly developed methods of utilizing southern pine for producing kraft paper and newsprint have caused considerable increase in this type of production. Kraft paper is usually dark brown in color and is a most durable type of wrapping paper. Such paper is manufactured at Covington, Franklin, West Point, Hopewell and Richmond. Other paper products such as gummed and waxed paper (Richmond), varied types of commercial envelopes and church collection envelopes (Richmond), multi-wall paper bags (Richmond, Franklin and Newport News) and paperboard containers—corrugated shipping cases, cartons, boxes of varied sizes and shapes (Richmond, Lynchburg) are likewise produced in abundance.
Over 9,000 employees are engaged in the printing and publishing industry. Approximately one-half of these employees work in the printing and publishing of newspapers. These newspaper companies are scattered throughout the state. In addition, there are other companies which publish books, engage in commercial printing in general, in lithographing, bookbinding, plate printing, engraving and in photo engraving. These companies also are located in several areas with Richmond, Norfolk and Newport News having the greatest number of employees.
Another industry important to Virginia's economic expansion is the stone, clay and glass production industry. Half of the employees in this industry are engaged in the manufacture of concrete and plaster products. An increase in local construction has resulted in an increase in the production of cinder blocks and other building materials. The following products are included: purchased glass products (example, mirrors)—Galax, Bassett, Richmond, Martinsville; hydraulic cement—Fordwick and Riverton; structural clay (brick and hollow tile)—Roanoke; pottery and china (lusterware)—Abingdon; flower pots and pans—Richmond; asbestos (automatic brake linings)—Winchester; stone products (marble and granite monumental stones)—Burkeville, Richmond, Roanoke and Danville; concrete products—Roanoke and Richmond; gypsum products—Plasterco and Norfolk; lime—Austinville and Kimballton; mineral wool—Riverton; soapstone and stone products—Schuyler; abrasives—Petersburg; and mica—Newport News.
Other manufacturing industries in Virginia include (1) leather and leather products—with tanneries at Luray, Bristol, Pearisburg, Buena Vista and Salem; luggage-making at Petersburg and footwear-making at Lynchburg, Fredericksburg, Farmville and Halifax; (2) primary metals industry—with gray-iron foundries at Newport News, Lynchburg and Radford; (3) fabricated metals industry—with the manufacture of structural metal and structural and ornamental products at Richmond, Norfolk, Bristol and Alexandria; pressure vessels at Newport News; locks at Salem; swimming-pool type atomic reactors at Campbell County (near Lynchburg), and (4) non-electrical machinery industry—with hydraulic turbines, textile wool cards, pulp and papermaking machinery at Newport News, Crozet, Bristol and Richmond.
Employment in Agriculture—A persistent trend in Virginia's economic picture is the continuous decline in agricultural employment, a condition characteristic of agriculture in the United States in general. Approximately 10% of the total employment is presently found in agricultural pursuits. Although the demand for agricultural commodities has increased, the output per worker in agriculture has increased more rapidly. The greater output has occurred as a result of improved methods of farming, technological advances and larger agricultural investments. This situation has resulted also in a greater variety of crops, improved breeds of livestock, and better control of insects and pests.
In the past twenty years there has been a gradual shift in Virginia's agriculture from the production of crops to the production of livestock and livestock products. As a matter of fact, Virginia is a leader in the South in the relative importance of livestock and livestock products. Poultry and poultry products lead the distribution list, followed by meat animals (cattle and calves, hogs, sheep and lambs) and dairy products. Virginia ranks third in the production of turkeys in the United States and sixth in production of broiler chicks in the United States. Rockingham County is famous for its turkeys and chickens. "Cut-up chicken" meat, as well as broilers and eggs, constitutes important poultry products. Culpeper and Loudoun Counties have the greatest number of milk cows per square mile. Large manufacturing plants in the southwestern part of Virginia produce evaporated and condensed milk. Beef cattle are raised in almost every county in Virginia but the Southwest, the Shenandoah Valley and Northern Virginia are the three chief regions. In addition to the meat itself, by-products such as soap and fodder are manufactured and hides and skins are utilized in the making of miscellaneous articles. Hogs and pigs are found in great numbers in Southampton, Nansemond and Isle of Wight Counties and sheep and lambs in large numbers in Augusta, Russell, Rockingham and Highland Counties.
In field crops, tobacco leads the list. One of the nation's largest tobacco producers, Virginia has four types of tobacco: (1) flue-cured—the most extensive one—grown largely in Pittsylvania, Halifax and Mecklenburg Counties with Danville and South Boston the chief markets; (2) burley tobacco grown mostly in the southwest area—Washington, Scott and Lee Counties—with Abingdon the leading market; (3) fire-cured tobacco grown in Appomattox, Charlotte and Campbell with Lynchburg and Farmville important markets and (4) sun-cured tobacco grown in central Virginia—Louisa, Caroline and Hanover Counties—with Richmond the largest market in this area.
Virginia ranks first in the amount of peanut yield per acre and third in peanut production in the United States. The peanut acreage is located in southeast Virginia—Southampton, Isle of Wight, Nansemond and Sussex Counties; Suffolk is often referred to as the "Peanut Capital of the World." Corn is grown in practically every county with most acreage in Southampton, Loudoun and Pittsylvania Counties. The growing of wheat, particularly winter wheat, is widespread also, with Augusta, Rockingham and Loudoun Counties having the greatest harvest. Irish potatoes are grown extensively on the Eastern Shore (Accomack and Northampton Counties) and in the Norfolk area. Virginia ranks third in sweet potato production in the United States and Accomack, Northampton and Princess Anne Counties are the chief growers of these potatoes. Soy beans are cultivated in Norfolk, Princess Anne, Accomack, Northumberland and Hanover Counties. Hay is grown in various parts of Virginia and consists of six types: clover and timothy hay, lespedeza hay, alfalfa hay, peanut hay, soybean hay and cowpea hay. Cotton is grown in the southeast, particularly in Southampton, Greensville, Brunswick and Mecklenburg Counties. Virginia leads all the states in the production of orchard grass seed. Some oats, barley and buckwheat are grown but only in small quantities.
Truck farming is extremely important. Lima beans, snap beans, beets, broccoli, cabbage, cucumbers, sweet corn, kale, onions, green peas, green peppers, spinach, strawberries, tomatoes and watermelons are grown extensively. The truck farming region is located primarily in Accomack, Northampton, King and Queen, Nansemond, Princess Anne and Norfolk Counties. Much of the truck farming crop is sent to New York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Boston, Washington and Atlanta.
In fruit production, apples are first; in total production, apples follow two field crops, tobacco and peanuts. Virginia ranks fourth in apple production in the United States. The chief apple producing counties are Frederick, Clarke, Augusta and Nelson and the types of apples produced are York Imperial, Winesap, Stayman, Delicious, Grimes Golden, Albemarle Pippin or Yellow Newton, Ben Davis and Gano, Black Twig, Golden Delicious, Rome Beauty and Jonathan. Peaches are grown in abundance in Nelson, Albemarle, Frederick, Roanoke, Rockingham and Botetourt Counties, making Virginia tenth in peach production in the United States. Pears and grapes are grown on a small scale. In addition to the full-time agricultural employment, there is much seasonal agricultural employment, particularly for fruit and truck farming.
Thus, although agricultural employment has been surpassed by employment in government, in manufacturing occupations and in wholesale and retail trade, the products grown and the livestock raised are numerous and excellent in quality. Thus, Virginia with approximately 135,000 farms, contributes significantly to the agricultural economy of the United States.
In addition to employers engaged in government employment, manufacturing and agriculture, additional groups of employees in Virginia are engaged in a series of diversified economic activities. Among such occupations are those concerned with trade, services, public utilities, construction, finance, mining and forestry and fishing.
Employment in Wholesale and Retail Trade—Employment in wholesale and retail trade has increased in Virginia to such an extent that it ranks third, following government employment and manufacturing employment, in non-agricultural employment. Approximately 22% of the civilian non-agricultural employees are engaged in trade. The shift from an agricultural to an industrial economy has resulted in a greater demand for wholesale and retail goods. During the decade of the 1950's wholesale and retail trade employment increased its relative share of total state employment by approximately one-third. The greatest number of persons in retail trade work in the food trades and in general merchandising.
Employment in Services—Services industries are located throughout the state; approximately 11% of the civilian non-agricultural employees are engaged in such activity. This category includes domestic help and other forms of personalized aid.
Employment in Public Utilities—Employment in public utilities constitutes approximately 9% of the total civilian non-agricultural employment. This occupational group is extremely important because of the key role of transportation, communication and local utilities in the state. About one-half of these workers are employed in taxicab service, local transit service, telephone and telegraph service, radio broadcasting and television service, electric, gas, water and sanitary service utilities. Half of the workers included in this category consist of railroad and water transportation workers.
Employment in Construction Activities—Approximately 7% of the total civilian non-agricultural employment is concerned with construction. More than three-fourths of all construction during the past decade has been for private use, approximately half of this construction involving private residences. The tremendous increase in the population of Virginia during the past twenty years has caused the rate of private residential building to be higher than that for the entire nation. Privately-owned public utility buildings, public highways and private non-residential buildings rank high in kinds of construction projects undertaken.